Oil motors : their development, construction, and management. A handbook for engineers, owners, attendants, and all interested in engines using liquid fuel

- - 01L MOTORS.
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- - CHARLES GRIFFIN & CO., LTD., PUBLI8HER8.
  - Cloth. Fully Illustrated. 18s. net.
  - A MANUAL OF
  - PETROL MOTORS AND MOTOR CARS.
  - Comprising tlie Dcsigning, Construction, and Workiug of Petrol Motors.
  - By F. STRICKLAND.
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  - .1/ nhaniml Kmjineer.
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  - THE PETROL CAR.
  - (MOTOlt-CAR MECHANISM AND MANAGEMENT).
  - By W. POYNTER ADAMS, M.Inst.C.E.
  - “ iShould lie carefully studied hy ail those wlio liave anything to do witli motors.”—Automobile and Cnrriage Duilders' Journal.
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  - and Testing of Luliricants.
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  - A HANDBOOK ON PETROLEUM.
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- - 5<H
  - OIL MOTORS:
  - THEIR DEVELOPMENT, CONSTRUCTION, AND MANAGEMENT.
  - A HANDBOOK FOR EN G INF K RS, 0 WN ERS, ATTENDANTS, AND A LL INT ER EST ED IN ENGIN ES DS ING LIQUID FUEL.
  - BY
  - G. LIECKFELD, Civil Engineer.
  - SOLE AUTHORISED ENGLISH EDITION.
  - Wtb 306 Jllustrattons.
  - BIBLIOTHÈQUE DU CONSERVATOIRE NATIONAL des ARTS ?... MÉTIERS
  - LONDON:
  - CHARLES GRTFFIN & COMPANY, LFMITED, EXETER STREET, STRAND.
  - 1 9 0 8.
  - [AU Rights lieserved.]
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- - PllEEACE.
  - The présent work is a translation of tlie third édition of Die Petroleum- und Benzinrnotoren, whicli in Germany oonstitutes a handbook widely read by ail persons interested in the construction or tlie working of stationary and automobile engines using liquid-fuel.
  - The author, as will be seen, deals exhaustively with the suhject : commences witli descriptions of the liquid - fuels available, leads up to the construction of the various types of engines, with explanations on their component parts, the fuuotions of tlie latter, and concludes with very complété notes on the troubles whicli may occur with even the best regulated engines, the causes of sucli troubles, and the various means of rectifying tliem.
  - In the sanie way as wonders hâve been wrought with the electric current, it being impossible to deline what electricitjr exactly is, a great deal lias been accomplished with liquid fuel, petrol especially, an essence of crude minerai oil—petroleum—of whicli it is very difficult to say more than tliat it is tlie resuit of a very complété natural distillation of sotne original substance or substances, carried out during a very lengthy period.
  - The adjective “ minerai ” in a préfacé to the présent book forms more or less of a misnomer, for the author is of the opinion that petroleum is the resuit of a natural distillation of animal matter. This, as is well known, is a much disputed point, and there are many experts who entcrtain the tlieory that petroleum is a resuit of the décomposition of vegetable remains, while otliers, quite as mimerons, believe it to be due to the natural réaction of gases upon minerais, the process in the latter case being, if we may so terni it, a volcanic one. The formation of a defînite opinion on this point is further complicated by the fact that the Chemical composition of petroleum from various sources shows many distinctive characteristics. The author is therefore quite justified in putting forward his theory : it lias as many points in its favour as the two otliers.
  - It should be remarked here that the Continental appellations for oil fuels do not correspond in every case to those in use in this country—petrol, on the Continent, meaning very gcnerally tlie refined oil and not the distillate. Continental firms often add to the word “petrol” the qualificative “oil” or “essence,” wliich serves as a rough guide when the spécifie gravity is not stated.
  - In the liâmes given to the dérivatives of both petroleum and tar, there is also a lack of consistency between the practice of difi'erent countries in
  - v
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- - VI
  - PKEEACE.
  - clearly discriminating between parailin, refined petroleum oil, and crude oil. In the présent translation, most of the ternis nsed are those employed, for instance, in the Report of the Fuels Committee of the Motor Union of Great Britain and Ireland, the hope heing entertaiued that by adopting recognised standards tlieir meaniug will be correctly interpreted.
  - Whatever may be the origin of crude petroleum, its supply is far frora being inexhaustible ; progress in the matter of internai combustion engines will lie in increasing the amount of power to be obtained from a given quantity of liquid-fuel. But it will lie more especially in the greater adaptation of these engines to the use of alcohol, and the author is right in surmising that the agriculture of the future will be devoted to the growing, in constantly increasing proportions, of plants and fruits from which concentrated fuels may be obtained.
  - London, October 1908.
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- - CONTENTS.
  - CHAPTER I.
  - The Origin and Extraction of Liquid-Fuels.
  - Crude petroleum and Alcoliol
  - its distillâtes—The liquid distillâtes of minerai coal—
  - CHAPTER TI.
  - Liquid-Euels as a Mkans of Power Production.
  - Petrol—Paraffin oil or kerosene—Benzol—Alcoliol.....
  - CHAPTER III.
  - The Development of the Petrol and Paraffin Motors.
  - The Hock petrol engine—Brayton petrol engine—Wittig & Hees petrol engine— Daimler petrol engine—Development of the paraffin and oil engine—The Kjelsberg paraffin engine of 1889—Capitaine paraffin engine—Paraffin engine on tlie Horusby-Akroyd System—First Diesel eugines
  - CHAPTER IV.
  - The Working of the Latkr Paraffin and Petrol Engines: their Construction and Component Parts.
  - The working of paraffin and petrol engines—The construction of paraffin and petrol engines—Component parts of paraffin and petrol engines—The supply and mixture of the fuel—Carburettors for liglit fuels—Carburcttors for lieavy fuels—Fuel pumps—Fuel filters—Ileating lamps for oil and petrol engines— Speed governors—Starting devices—Cylinder lubrication—Cylindcr lubri-cating apparatus ........
  - CHAPTER V.
  - Ignition Devices for Oil and Petrol Engines. General Remarks.
  - Hot tube ignition—Electric ignition—Illustrations of the various devices.
  - vii
  - PAGES
  - 1-8
  - 9-17
  - 18-87
  - 38-75
  - 76-91
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- - Vlll
  - CONTENTS.
  - CH APTE R VI.
  - Examplks os Stationauy Petrol and Alcoiiol Engines.
  - Korting, Deutz, Swiderski, Oberursel, Gardner, Tangye, Solmlein, and Bânki Engines .........
  - l’AQES
  - 92-125
  - CHAPTEll VII.
  - Recent Station auy Engines Working witii Para sein and Crude Ou,.
  - Bânki, Diesel, Trinkler, and Bronsmotorenfabrik engines . . . . 126-136
  - OHAPTER VIII.
  - Automobile Engines.
  - Benz, de Dion Bouton, Canello-Diirkopp, Adlerwerke, Daimler, “Ilexe,” “Bayard,” Swiderski, and Niirnberger - Motorfahzeugfabrik, “Union,” automobile engines—Recent cycle engines, Neckavsulmer cycle engine,
  - “ Motosacoclie,” and Wanderer-Falirradwerke cycle engines . . . 137-162
  - OHAPTER IX.
  - Siiip, I’oat, and Airship Engines.
  - Daimler bout engine, Swiderski paraflin boat engine, “Sleipner” boat engine,
  - Korting paraflin engine l’or submarine boats, Deutz boat engine, Gardner paraflin boat engine, Heinrich Kiimper boat engines, and Thornycroft boat engines—Gcrman airship engines, and “ Antoinette,” Paris, sixteen cylinder engine .......... 163-179
  - CHAPTEll X.
  - Hoad and Rail Veiiicles, and Airsiiips, Driven by Internal Combustion Engines.
  - First Daimler motor cycle—First Daimler car—Recent automobiles—Benz first niotor car—Benz automobile—Châssis of six-cylinder “Hexe” automobile—
  - Daimler châssis—“Mercedes Simplex” car—Daimler omnibus — Daimler military transport car—Daimler lorry—“ Bayard ” automobile and châssis—
  - “Maurer - Union” automobiles—“Cyklonette” delivery and passenger cars—Motor tricycles and bicycles—Troost tractor—Rail vehicles driven by internai combustion engines—First rail vehicle—Daimler “sumnier car,”
  - 1887—Daimler motor-drivcn trolley and railway carriage—Recent Deutz and Oberursel locomotives—Motor boats—Daimler motor boats and friction gear — Grob & Meissner boats and réversible propellers—Bieberstein and Giidicke and Kâmper transmission gear — Cudell motor-driven propeller—Airship engines—Thornycroft racing motor boat—Diesel engines on passenger and cargo steamer, and on a Russian gunboat—Zeppelin and “Ville de Paris” dirigible airships—Portable engines—Deutz, Oberursel, Bieberstein, Tangyes,
  - Ganz, and Swiderski locomobilcs—Motor-driven water- and air-pumps by Kiîrting, Swiderski, Deutz, and Tangye—Oberursel motor-driven winch—
  - Daimler lire engine—Oberursel engine-driven crâne — Ganz engine-driven plough—Dynamo car -Engine - driven dynamo—Engine-driven traverser— Engine-driven wood sawing and cutting machine .... 180-236
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- - CONTENTS.
  - IX
  - CI IA PT ER XI.
  - Erection and Attendanck ok Engines Driven witii Liquid-Fuei..
  - l'AGES
  - Points to be taken into acconnt—Foundations—Location for good transmission—
  - Transport of lieavy parts—Accessibility of tire cngine—Exhaust pipe—Air-supply pipes—Cooling—Illustrations of complété plants—Conditions in force from lst Àugust 1906, in Gcrmany, relating to the installation of stationary engines using liquid fuels ....... ‘237-253
  - CHAPTER XII.
  - On Correct in g Trregularities in Running.
  - Dangers, and précautions to be taken, in connection with the use of internai combustion engines—Details of troubles whicli may occur, the causes of sucli troubles, tlieir explanation and remedies—Dangers and précautions witii internai combustion engines ....... 254-266
  - INDEX .......... 267-272
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- - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
  - FIG.
  - 1.
  - 2.
  - 3.
  - 4, 6. 7, 9.
  - 10,
  - 12,
  - 14.
  - 15.
  - 16.
  - 17.
  - 18.
  - 19.
  - 20. 21. 22.
  - 23.
  - 24.
  - 25.
  - 27.
  - 28.
  - 29.
  - 30.
  - 31.
  - 32.
  - 33.
  - 34.
  - 35. 36-
  - 39.
  - 40.
  - 41.
  - 42.
  - 44.
  - 45.
  - 46.
  - fclie Maschinenfabrik the Maschinenfabrik
  - Hock petrol motor, a.d. 1873
  - Brayton petrol engine, a.d. 1876 (longitudinal section)
  - ,, ,, ,, (plan).
  - 5. Wittig & ITees petrol engine
  - > > J î i î
  - 8. The Daimler petrol engine Tlie Daimler carburettor .
  - 11. Kjelsberg paraflin engine 13. The Capitaine paralïin engine Carburettor of the Capitaine paraflin engine Governor of the Capitaine paraflin engine Paraflin engine, Akroyd system .
  - Paraflin pump of the Akroyd engine First Diesel experimental engine, built in 1894 by Augsburg
  - Second Diesel experimental engine, built in 1897 by Augsburg ....
  - Horizontal type of engine witli crosshead guide Horizontal trunk-piston type Vertical type with crankshaft below ,, ,, „ above
  - Inclined type with crankshaft below 26. Horizontal engine franie, with cylinder liner Vertical engine franie, with cylinder liner Piston with movable gudgeon Piston with fixed gudgeon Piston ring stud of the Gasmotorenlabrik Deutz Tangyes piston ring stud .
  - Piston ring stud of the Vcrdau Motorenfabrik Valve .....
  - Korting’s carburettor for stationary engines Bilnki carburettor
  - 38. Carburettor of the Daimler Motoren-Gesellschaft, Untertürkheim Automatic carburettor for automobiles of the Adler-Falirradwerke, formerly Heinrich Kleyer, Frankfort-on-Main .
  - Longuemare carburettor for stationary and automobile engines Carburettor by A. Clément, Levai lois-Perret, Paris (“ Bayard ” automobiles)
  - 43. Longuemare carburettor : latest type for automobiles Carburettor for the Neckarsulmer Falirradwerke A.-G. motor cycle The Capitaine carburettor for fuel having a higli boiling-point .
  - 47. Tlie Bdnki carburettor for oil and petrol engines
  - l’AGK
  - 19
  - 21
  - 22
  - 23
  - 24
  - 25
  - 26 28
  - 30
  - 31 31
  - 33
  - 34
  - 35
  - 36 40 40 40 40
  - 40
  - 41
  - 42 44
  - 44
  - 45 45
  - 45
  - 46 50
  - 50
  - 51
  - 52
  - 53
  - 53
  - 54 54
  - 56
  - 57
  - x
- p.r10 - vue 10/354
- - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
  - FIG.
  - 48. Louguemare carburcttor for heavy fuel
  - 49. Oil puni]) of the Swidcrski oil engine
  - 50. Tlie Grob & Co. valveless oil puni])
  - 51. 52. Diesel engiue fuel pump ....
  - 53. The Kortiug wire gauze filter . . . . •
  - 54. The Louguemare wire gauze filter
  - 55. The Longuemare filter for automobiles
  - 56. 57. Pressure-producing devices for heating lamps, used by the Daimler
  - Motorengesellschaft ....
  - 58-60. The Capitaine oil-lieating lamp
  - 61. Swedish oil-lieating lamp .....
  - 62. The Fried. Krupp, Grusonwerke, inertia governor
  - 63. Korting’s lly wheel governor ....
  - 64. Centrifugal governor of the Daimler-Motorengesellschaft
  - 65. Centrifugal governor of the Adler-Falirradwerke .
  - 66. 66A. Fischer salety crank ....
  - 67. Lubricator of the Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz
  - 68. Korting’s cylinder lubricator ....
  - 69. Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz pressure pump .
  - 70. Lubricating pump of Blanke & Rast, Leipzig-Plagwitz .
  - 71. Blanke & Rast oil distributor for pressure lubrication
  - 72. Oil cleaning apparatus, witli sait lilters, by Blanke & Rast, Leipzig-l’iagwit
  - (Gernian patent) .....
  - 73. Ignition tube, Daimler’s patent ....
  - 74-76. Sections of porcelain ignition tubes
  - 77. Electric ignition de vice .....
  - 78. „ „ •
  - 79. Magneto-electric ignition for stationary engincs, by Robert Bosch, Stuttgart
  - 80. Ignition mounting .....
  - 81. Magneto-electric ignition apparatus, witli rotary armature, for automobile
  - engines .........
  - 82. 83. Magneto-electric ignition apparatus, with rocking armature sliield, and
  - different types of springs for stationary engines
  - 84. Sparking plug of the Neckarsulmer Fahrradwcrke
  - 85, 86. Contact breaker of the Neckarsulmer Falirradwerke .
  - 87, 88. Bosch liigh-tension ignition apparatus for tlirec-, four-, and six-cylinder
  - automobile engines .....
  - 89. Diagram of connections of a liigh-teusion ignition apparatus for a lbur-cylindcr
  - engine ......
  - 90. Plug for Bosch liigh-tension ignition
  - 91. Adjustable contact-breaking device, by Robert Bosch, for a four-eyliuder auto
  - mobile engine .....
  - 92. Bosch ignition apparatus, with rotary armature, for high-speed engines with
  - contact-breaking device ....
  - 93-95. Bosch magneto-ignition plug (Ilonold System)
  - 96, 97. Cable-eye of the Apparatenbauanstalt Fischer, Frankfort
  - 98. Korting’s liquid-fuel engine ....
  - 99. ,, ,, (plan)
  - 100. ,, ,, (section)
  - 101. ,, ,, (ignition) .
  - 102. ,, ,, (general view)
  - 103. Deutz slow speed liquid-fuel engine in wliicli the mixture is formed by means
  - of a puni]) and an atomiser (side élévation)
  - xi
  - PAGE
  - 57
  - 58
  - 59
  - 59
  - 60 60 60
  - 62
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  - 67
  - 68 68 68 70 74 74 74 74
  - 74
  - 75
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  - 79 81 82
  - 83
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  - 88 88
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  - 96
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- - XII
  - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
  - FIG.
  - 104.
  - 105.
  - 106.
  - 107.
  - 108.
  - 109.
  - 110. 111. 112.
  - 113.
  - 114.
  - 115.
  - 116.
  - 117.
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  - 119.
  - 120. 121. 122.
  - 123.
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  - 129.
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  - 135.
  - 136. 138,
  - 140,
  - 142.
  - 143.
  - 144.
  - 145.
  - 146.
  - 147.
  - 148.
  - 149.
  - 150.
  - 151.
  - 152.
  - 154.
  - 155.
  - Deutz liquid-fuel engine (Section I., II. of fig. 103) . . . .
  - ,, ,, (section througli valves in engines witli pump and
  - atomiser) .......
  - Deutz liquid-fucl engine, using a vaporiser (longitudinal section)
  - ,, ,, iitted witli évaporation cooling jacket (section)
  - ,, ,, (details of ignition)
  - ,, ,; witli vaporiser
  - ,, ,, (vertical section)
  - ,, ,, (side élévation)
  - S vider ski liquid-fuel engine (side élévation)
  - ,, ,, (vertical section)
  - ,, ,, (general view)
  - Oberursel engine (section through base plate)
  - Oberursel liquid-fuel engine (side élévation)
  - ,, ,, ,, (vertical section)
  - ,, ,, ,, (general view)
  - Stationary liquid-fuel engine, built by the Motorenfabrik Oberursel À.-G. Gardner liquid-fuel engine, type 3 to 5 .
  - ,, ,, type 1 to 2 a
  - Vertical section of Tangye engine Horizontal section of Tangye engine Cross section of Tangye engine Feed pump for starting witli petrol Electric ignition ....
  - Tangye liquid-fuel engine, for small powers ,, ,, for large powers
  - Tangye alcohol engine Solinlein two-stroke cycle, valveless engine
  - 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 >
  - Banki petrol engine (vertical section)
  - ,, ,, (side élévation)
  - Bânki oil engine (vertical section)
  - ,, ,, (section tlirougli valve eliest and exliaust)
  - 137. Sections tlirougli cylinder and valve eliest of Diesel oil engine 139. Diesel engine pump, for second stage of air compression, for supplying tire air for spraying tlie fuel 141. Details of a Diesel engine
  - 120 h.-p. Diesel engine built by tlie Maschinenfabrik Augsburg (front view)
  - ,, „ , „ „ (rearview) .
  - Trinkler engine, built by tlie Gebr. Korting Co., Hanover (longitudinal section) ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, (section tlirougli valve)
  - 33 33 JJ 33 33 * « *
  - Paraffin and crude oil engine built by tbe Bronsmotorenfabrik, Appingedamm (Holland) ......
  - Benz automobile engine of 1896 (horizontal section)
  - ,, ,, „ (side view)
  - De Dion-Bouton engine in its original form (vertical section)
  - ,, ,, (side élévation) .
  - 153. Canello-Diirkopp automobile engine .
  - Four-cylinder engine of the Adlerwerke, vorm. Heinrich Kleyer A. -G. Frank-fort-Main (front view)
  - Four-cylinder engine of the Adlerwerke, vorm. Heinrich Kleyer A.-G. Frank-fort-Main (vertical section)
  - PAG K
  - 99
  - 99
  - 100
  - 100
  - 101
  - 101
  - 103
  - 104 106
  - 107
  - 108
  - 109
  - 110 111 112
  - 114
  - 115
  - 116 118 118 119 119 119
  - 119
  - 120 120 121 122
  - 124
  - 125 127
  - 127
  - 128
  - 129
  - 130
  - 131
  - 132
  - 134
  - 135
  - 135
  - 136
  - 139
  - 140
  - 141
  - 141
  - 142
  - 143
  - 144
- p.r12 - vue 12/354
- - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
  - FIG.
  - 156. Fom’-cylinder en gin e of the Alderwerke, vomi. Heinricli Kleyer, A.-G., Frank
  - fort-Main (view of eombined casing for engine and gear) .
  - 157. Four-cylinder engine of the Daimler-Motorengesellscliaft (exhanst side)
  - 158. Four-cylinder engine of the Daimler-Motorengesellscliaft (inlet side)
  - 159. ,, ,, ,, ,, (front view) .
  - 160. Six-cylinder “Hexe” engine built hy Achenhacli & Co., Hamburg (sid
  - élévation) ....
  - 161. 162. Front view and vertical section of the six-cylinder “ Hexe ” engine, buil
  - by Achenbacli & Co., Hamburg .....
  - 163. Cranlc sliaft of tlie six-cylinder “ Hexe ” engine, built by Achenbach & Co.
  - Hamburg ........
  - 164. Four-cylinder “ Bayard ” engine (side view) ....
  - 165. ,, ,, ,, (front view) ....
  - 166. “ Bayard ” engine (vertical section) .....
  - 167. “ Bayard ” engine (Simms-Boscli ignition device)
  - 168. Paraffin engine for lieavy cars, 70 li.-p., built by the Maschinenbau A.-G. vomi
  - Ph. Swiderski for Messrs E. Troost, Berlin, Hamburg, and South-Wes Africa ......
  - 169. Four-cylinder “ Maurer-Union ” engine (side view)
  - 170. One-cylinder “Maurer-Union” engine (section in cylinder)
  - 171. ,, ,, ,, (side view)
  - 172. Neckarsulmer cycle engine ....
  - 173. Carburettor of “ La Motosacoche ”
  - 174. Vertical section of cycle engine built by II. & A. Dufaux & Co., Gencva
  - 175. Cross-section of cycle engine built by II. & A. Dufaux & Co., Geneva
  - 176. General view of the engine complété (left side)
  - 177. ,, ,, ,, (rightside)
  - 178. Cycle engine of the Wanderer-Fahrradwerke
  - 179. Engine of the Maschinenfabrik “ Cyklon ”
  - 180. 181. Daimler boat engines built in 1890 .
  - 182. Swiderski boat engine (vertical section) .
  - 183. ,, ,, (side élévation)
  - 184. “ Sleipner ” boat engine (section througli cylinder)
  - 185. ,, ,, ,, (general arrangement) .
  - 186. The Kbrting six-cylinder submarine boat engine using parallin
  - 187. Section tlirough the engine-room of a submarine fit ted witli the Kbrting paraffi
  - engine .......
  - 188. Deutz boat engine driven with paraffin ....
  - 189. Gardner one-cylinder boat engine, using paraffin .
  - 190. Gardner two-cylinder boat engine, using paraffin (longitudinal section)
  - 191. ,, ,, ,, (cross section) .
  - 192. The Kiimper one-cylinder boat engine ....
  - 193. The Kiimper three-cylinder boat engine ....
  - 194. Thornycrol't boat engine ......
  - 195. 196. ,, ,,......
  - 197. „ ....................................
  - 198. Kbrting airship engine of 1887 .....
  - 199. 100 h.-]). “Antoinette ” engine carried by a man .
  - 200. Sixteen-cylinder 100 h.-p. engine, built by the Société “Antoinette”
  - 201. The first Daimler inotor cycle .....
  - 202. ,, ,. (side élévation)
  - 203. The first Daimler car, 1886 (general view)
  - 204. ,, ,, (side élévation)
  - XIU
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  - 179 181 181 182 182
- p.r13 - vue 13/354
- - XIV
  - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
  - Fia.
  - 205. The Benz first motor car, 1886 (general view) .....
  - 206. ,, ,, (rear view) . . . . ,
  - 207. View of Benz automobile of 1891, seating tliree or four persons .
  - 208. Benz automobile of 1891 (side élévation) ......
  - 209. ,, ,, (plan) ........
  - 210. 211. Châssis of the six-cylinder automobile “Ilexe” type, built by Achenbach
  - & Co., Hamburg ........
  - 212. View of the six-cylinder “ Hexe” automobile, 35/40 h.-p.
  - 213. Châssis and gear of the Daimler-Motorengesellschaft Untertürkhcim
  - 214. View of an 18 h.-p. motor car “Mercedes Simplex,” built by the Daimler-
  - Motorengesellschaft .......
  - 215. 12 h.-p. motor omnibus, built by the Daimler-Motorengesellschaft
  - 216. 10 h.-p. military transport car, built by the Daimler-Motorengesellschaft
  - 217. 16 h.-p. lorry, built by the Daimler-Motorengesellschaft.
  - 218. Châssis of a “ Bayard” 14/18 h.-p. automobile .
  - 219. View of a 10/14 h.-p. “ Bayard ” automobile . . . , .
  - 220. View of a 14/18 h.-p. “ Bayard ” automobile .
  - 221. Châssis and gear of a four-cylinder “ Maurer Union ” automobile
  - 222. 6 to 8 h.-p. “Maurer Union” automobile for doctors’ use
  - 223. 12 to 22 h.-p. four-cylinder “ Maurer-Union ” automobile
  - 224. “ Cyldonette” delivery car, built by the Maschinenfabrik “Cyklon,”
  - Rummelsburg ........
  - 225. “ Cyklonette ” witli hood, seating two or three persons .
  - 226. Neckarsulmer motor tricycle witli détachable side seat ....
  - 227. 2J li.-]). motor cycle of the Wanderer Falirradwerke ....
  - 228. Bicycle fittcd witli a 1| h.-p. “Motosacoche ” engine , . . .
  - 229. Troost tractor .........
  - 230. „ .........
  - 231. First rail veliicle driven by a petrol engine, built in 1880
  - 232. The Daimler “ summer ” car, 1887 ......
  - 233. The Daimler motor-driven trolley ......
  - 234. The Daimler motor-driven railway carriage .....
  - 235. Field and forest track locomotive, equip]>ed with a 32 h.-p. engine, built by the
  - Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz .......
  - 236. Slmnting locomotive, equipped with a 60 h.-p. engine, built by the Gas-
  - motorenfabrik Deutz .......
  - 237. Mining locomotive, equipped with a 32 h.-p. engine, built by the Gasmotoren-
  - fabrik Deutz .......
  - 238. Shunting locomotive, equipped with an alcohol-petrol engine, built by the
  - Motorenfabrik Oberursel . . . . . .
  - 239. Mining locomotive in service at the Bergbau Aktiengesellschaft, Friedrichssegen,
  - Lalm .........
  - 240. The first Daimler motor boat built in 1886 .....
  - 241. Arrangement of a Daimler boat built in America in 1890
  - 242. The Daimler friction gear for motor boats .....
  - 243. 244. Réversible propeller manufactured by the Motorenfabrik Grob & Co.,
  - Leipzig . . . . . ...
  - 245. Device for reversing propeller blades in motor boats ....
  - 246. Réversible propeller manufactured by Karl Meissner, Hamburg, for large boats .
  - 247. Transmission gear for sliip propellers built by Bieberstein & Godicke, Ham-
  - burg .........
  - 248. Transmission gear for sliip propellers, built by Heinricli Kiimper, Berlin-
  - Mariendorf .........
  - PAGE
  - 183
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  - 195 195
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  - 196 196
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  - 200 200 201 202 202 203 203
  - 205
  - 206 206 207
  - 207
  - 208 208 209
  - 209
  - 210 211
  - 211
  - 212
- p.r14 - vue 14/354
- - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
  - XV
  - EIG. PAGE
  - 249. 2-5 li.-p. motor-driven propeller for small boats and yachts, built by tlie Cudell-
  - Motoren-Gesellscliaft, Ltd., Berlin, N. . . . . 212
  - 250. 2 h.-t). motor-driven propeller, built by the Cudell-Motoren-Gesellscliaft, Ltd.,
  - Berlin, N........................................................213
  - 251. Boat equipped witli tlie Cudell propelling device .... 213
  - 252-254. Motor boats built by Karl Meissner, Hamburg .... 214
  - 255. Longitudinal section of a Karl Meissner motor boat . 214
  - 256. View of a Karl Meissner motor boat ...... 215
  - 257. Racing motor boat, built by Messrs John J. Thornycroft k Go., London . 215
  - 258. Motor boat built by Messrs Bieberstein & Godicke, Hamburg . . . 216
  - 259. 260. „ „ „ ... 217
  - 261, 262. Russian gunboat with Diesel engines and eleetric transmission to the
  - propeller sliaft ........ 218
  - 263. Dirigible airship of Count von Zeppelin (rigid System) .... 219
  - 264. Dirigible airship “ La Ville de Paris ” (semi-rigid System) . . . 219
  - 265. Loeomobile with belt transmission, built by the Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz . 220
  - 266. Loeomobile with transmission gear, built by the Motorenfabrik “Oberursel” . 221
  - 267. 2 to 6 h.-p. locomotive, built by the Motorenfabrik “ Oberursel ” . . 221
  - 268. Loeomobile built by Bieberstein & Godicke, Hamburg .... 222
  - 269. Loeomobile built by the Motorenfabrik “ Oberursel ”, . . . 223
  - 270. Loeomobile built by Tangyes, Ltd., Birmingham .... 223
  - 271. Loeomobile built by Ganz & Co., Budapest ..... 224
  - 272. Loeomobile built by the Maschinenbau A.-G., vomi. Pli. Swiderski, Leipzig . 225
  - 273. Engine - driven waterwork installation, built by the Gebr. Korting Co.,
  - Kortingsdorf-Hanover ....... 225
  - 274. The Swiderski engine-driven pump ...... 226
  - 275. 276. Korting engine-driven pumps ...... 227
  - 277, 278. Engine-driven pumps, built by the Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz . . 227
  - 279, 280. Pumps built by the Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz .... 228
  - 281,282. Pumps built by Tangy es, Ltd., Birmingham .... 229
  - 283, 284. Air-compressors built by the Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz . . . 230
  - 285. Winding winch for use on building construction, by the Motorenfabrik
  - “Oberursel” ........ 231
  - 286. Engine-driven iire-engine, built by the Daimler-Motorengesellschaft, Unter-
  - tiirkheim ......... 231
  - 287. Engine-driven crâne, by the Motorenfabrik “ Oberursel ” . . . 232
  - 288. Engine-driven plouglx, by Ganz & Co., Budapest .... 232
  - 289. Dynamo car, motor-driven, by Bieberstein & Godicke, Hamburg . . 233
  - 290. Dynamo with three-cyliuder engine, by Bieberstein & Godicke, Hamburg . 234
  - 291. Engine-driven traverser, by Gebr. Korting, Kortingsdorf, near Hanover . 235
  - 292. Engine-driven wood-sawing and eutting machine, built by Grob & Co., Leipzig . 236
  - 293. Cooling with water under pressure and exhaust pipe for a simili vertical engine . 240
  - 294. Arrangement of cooling tank with a 2 li.-p. engine .... 240
  - 295. The Korting radiator ........ 241
  - 296. Radiator with device for lieating or ventilating ..... 241
  - 297. Air cooler .......... 242
  - 298. Installation consisting of a small engine, using petrol, benzol, or paraflin . 243
  - 299. Engine installation for agricultural purposes ..... 243
  - 300. 301. Engine installation for agricultural purposes .... 244
  - 302, 303. Mechanically worked dairy and agricultural installation . . . 245
  - 304, 305. Mechanically worked dairy and agricultural installation . . . 246
  - 306. Roll-mill driven by a 3 h.-p. engine ...... 246
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- p.r16 - vue 16/354
- - 01L MOTORS.
  - CIIAPTER I.
  - THE ORIGrIN AND EXTRACTION OF LIQUID FUELS.
  - (a) Crude Petroleum and its Distillâtes.
  - Crude petroleum, which has been known from very remote times by the names of rock oil, minerai oil, or naphtha, is found in many parts of the world. In some places it wells forth naturally at the surface, but more generally it can only be obtained by employing some sucli means as boring: It is an oily liquid, having a disagreeable and penetrating odour. It is dark-yellow, brown, or grcy in colour, according to the district whence it is obtained, and it has, in addition to its colour, a characteristic blue or greenish fluorescence.
  - The largest quantities of crude petroleum are procured from fields in North America (e.g. the Pennsylvauian and Canadian fields, etc.) and in Russia, where large fields exist in the provinces bordering on the Caspian Sca. Several other sources of supply are known and worked, as, for instance, in Galicia, Roumania, and in the provinces of Hauover and Elsass (Pechelbronn), in Germany, but tliese are of less importance.
  - In 1879-1880 it was thought that oil-ficlds, as large and important as any existing in America or llussia, had been discovei'ed in the small town of Peine, about eighteen miles to the east of Hanover. Several wells, giving each a large output, were tapped witliin a very short time of eacli other, but they rapidly becamc exhausted, and the bright prospects of large profits vanished. The discovery, a few years ago, of petroleum near the small river Wietze, put new life into the Hanoverian oil industry ; and although, in tliis instance, the supply appears to be of a more lasting nature tlian that worked in Peine, this field in no way compares with those in America or Russia. It sliould be noticed in this connection also, that the Hanover petroleum district does not consist of one extensive basin. The formation contains faults which resuit in the supply being eut up, and to this fact will be due its exhaustion, at a more or less rapid rate, according to circumstances.
  - 1
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- - 2
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Petroleum was formerly considered to be the product of a process of dry distillation, under pressure, of vegetable matter. Later researches, however, suggest that its origin is to be traced to the animal kingdom, and tliat it really results from a distillation of animal matter.
  - Bxperiments bave shown that by the distillation, under great pressure, of animal fats, a product is obtained which is similar in ail respects to crude petroleum. It may now also be taken as proven that petroleum is not one variety or example of a large class, but that it is the original matter from which ail bituminous substances are derived. Minerai tar, ozokerite, asplialt, and otlier similar natural products, known as bituminous substances, bave, without doubt, been formed from petroleum, partly by the évaporation of volatile components and thcir combination with the oxygen of the air. ïhis is shown to be the case by the existence of minerai tar in close proximity to the petroleum fields in ltussia, of ozokerite in Galicia, and of asphalt in the province of Idanover.
  - It may seem extraordinary that local accumulations of animal remains should bave occurred in sufficient quantifies to form oil-fields of such extent and productiveness as are now known to exist, but this can, as a matter of fact, easily be explained. It should be remembered that salt-beds are alvvays encountered in proximity to petroleum lields. This fact points to the presence of former salt-water basins, and one may therefore conclude, with little fear of error, that the animal life of thèse salt-water basins has served to form the local petroleum deposits. Owing to the graduai recession of tliese seas, and to the formation of bars, the living créatures in these waters would, it is natural to suppose, be eut off from otlier seas and larger basins, and they probably perished in large quantifies.
  - As already mentioned, crude petroleum has been known from a very early period. It is referred to in the Bible. It has been known in Germany for centuries, and in the neighbourhood of the township of Peine, there is still prévalent an old custom of digging holes out in the open fields in order to obtain oil, which collects in the form of a thick liquid, and is used by the people of the neighbourhood for lubricating their carts, greasing shoes, etc.
  - The rise of the petroleum industry is, however, of comparatively recent date. The first tube-well was sunk in 1859, at Titusville, Pennsylvania, and this was the first application of what proved to be the correct method of obtaining crude oil in large quantifies. When, subsequently, the process of distilling the crude oil and of removing its extremely unpleasant odour had been introduced and perfected, the petroleum industry could truly be said to hâve been founded. The rapidity with which the use of American refined petroleum became general ail over the world, for lighting purposes, was quite phénoménal. It is probably no exaggeration to say that the refined petroleum lamp was in use in every village throughout the whole world in less than ten years from the time of the first successful boring operations conducted in tlie development of oil-fields.
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- - THE ORIGIN AND EXTRACTION OF LIQUID FUELS.
  - 3
  - In composition, crade petroleum is a hydrocarbon mixture of liquid gaseous, and solid components, in varying proportions. Its spécifie gravity is between 075 and 0-95, the heavier lcinds being the darker in colour.
  - In its crade state, petroleum is used only as a fuel and for médicinal purposes. Its use as fuel is economical only when its cost is not increased by transport charges. Thus, for instance, it is employed on tlie steamships trading in the Caspian Sea, and on the Volga.
  - It is also used on the locomotives of the railways in tliese same régions, ail of which are fired with oil fuel. In some cases, firing with light and porous minerai fuel, such as brown coal and peat impregnated with crude petroleum, lias been carried out with a considérable degree of success.
  - Crude petroleum lias long been used for médicinal purposes, after purification by treatment with neutral soaps (alkalis). These préparations are used as salves or ointments. They are known as naphtha salves, and are recommended in certain quarters for their healing properties, for wouuds, and as a cure for rheumatic affections.
  - When heated, crude petroleum gives off condensable vapours in such quantifies, that a very considérable réduction of volume of the oil occurs. It is to the distillâtes thus produced that the great importance of petroleum, for domestic, trade, and industrial purposes, is due.
  - These distillâtes may bc classified, according to the températures at which they are driven off, under threc main headings, as follows :—
  - 1. The highly volatile substances given olf at températures up to 150° C.
  - (302° Fahr.).
  - 2. The less volatile bodies driven off at températures between 150° and
  - 270° C. (302° and 518° Fahr.), which includesthe paraffin andkerosene
  - used for lighting and povver purposes.
  - 3. Those driven off at températures over 270° C. (518° Falir.), which form
  - the minerai lubricating oils.
  - The yield of distillâtes of these threc classes varies within very wide limits, according to the source whence the crude oil cornes.
  - American crude oil produces the greatest amount of paraffins (i.c. distillâtes of class 2), wliile the ltussian oils yield more of the minerai lubricating oil (distillâtes of class 3).
  - The products of the distillation of petroleum are utilised in a great variety of ways. Each product falling within one or otlxer of the classes cited above is further treated in turn, and at definite températures it yields a large number of other distillâtes to which distinctive trade-names are given. As an example of the variety of brands of distillâtes produced, those manufactured by one firm alone, the Petroleum liefining Co. (formerly Messrs August Korff, Bremen), at températures up to 150° C. (302° Fahr.), are given in the accompanying table :—
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- - 4
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Products of the Benzine Manufacturing Department.
  - Products. Spécifie Gravity.
  - Rhigolene about 0*615—0*625
  - Petroleum-etlier ......... „ 0*630—0*640
  - Gasolene No. 0 ........ „ 0*640—0*650
  - Hydrirene (registered trade-name for gas production) . ., 0*650
  - Gasolene No. I. . „ 0-650—0*660
  - ,, No. II. (for cookmg and lieating purposes) Petrol for automobiles and motor cycles (veloyene, registered „ 0*670—0*680
  - trade-name) ......... KorÜ’s motor petrol specially suitable for stationary engines . Korifs petrol No. I. J ^ Stom-water ” • • 1 No II 1 l°r bgbtmg, for domestic purposes, ” ” ' ‘ l and for cleaning .... „ 0*670—0*680 M 0*670—0*680
  - | ,, 0*690—0*700
  - Korif’s petrol No. III. for lighting and for cleaning purposes „ 0*710—0*730
  - Oil of turpentine substitute (putzol) ..... ,, 0*730—0*750
  - Distillâtes coming under Class T. of our grouping, and the uses to wliich some of them are put, are as follows Petroleum-ether, which is obtained at températures between 40° and 50° C. (104° and 122° Fahr.), is used as a solvent for indiarubber and various rosins. The gasolene obtained at températures between 70° and 80° C. (158° and 176° Fahr.), with a spécifie gravity of 0*66, is used for removing oils and greases, and for tlie production of air gas (aerogengas, homogengas, etc.). Petrol is given off at between 80° and 100° C. (176° and 212° Fahr.) ; it lias a spécifie gravity of 0*68 to 0'7, and its utilisation for power production is dealt witli in detail in the following chapters. At températures varying from 100° to 170° C. (212° to 338° Fahr.), a substitute for oil of turpentine, “putzol,” is obtained; this bas a spécifie gravity of 0*73 to 0*75 ; this may also be used for power purposes.
  - The second group of substances, which are obtained at températures ranging from 170° to 270° C. (338° to 518° Fahr.), are employed for lighting purposes. Ten years ago, different grades were not obtainable in this group ; at the présent time, however, illuminating oils of various qualifies are produced. Among these are, for example, “ kaiseri.il,” having a spécifie gravity of 0*78 to 0*8 ; American lighting oil (kerosene), of spécifie gravity 0*8 to 0*81 ; ïtussian lighting oil, with a spécifie gravity of 0*82 to 0'825 ; and the so-called “ engine oil,” used with the Diesel, Hornsby, and other engines.
  - The third group consists of the heavier minerai oils used for lubi’ication ; their spécifie gravities range from 0*895 to 0*960. Tliey are most ex-tensively used for lubricating, and havealmost entirely displaced the vegetable and animal oils and greases in general use thirty years ago.
  - Ail substances in the first group evaporate more or less roadily at the atmosphcric température, and the vapours tliey produce form, when mixed with air, liighly explosive mixtures. It is this property which makes these volatile minerai oils of sucli immense value for the production of power ; but these very qualifies also entail rislc of disastrous explosions, and of fire during transit and warehousing. With the second group—the lighting oils—
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- - THE ORIGIN AND EXTRACTION OF LIQU1D FUELS.
  - O
  - the danger is much less, especially when distillation has been carried on with care, as is now generally the case. A lighted match tlirown upon the surface of good lighting or engine-oil, should not set the oil alight, but should be extinguislied as though it fell on water. Inflammable vapours must only be formed on heating to over 30° C. (86° Fahr.). At the présent time tliere are on the market few well-distilled minerai oils used for lighting purposes, which contain in solution any appréciable quantity of hydrocarbon so volatile as to be driven off by variations in the température of the atmosphère, and which would, with the air, form explosive mixtures easily ignited.
  - (b) The Liquid Distillâtes of Minerai Coal.
  - (Common Coal and Brown Coal.)
  - The liquid hydrocarbon mixture (tar) now obtained by the distillation of minerai coal is also used for driving engines.
  - The origin of minerai coal may be traced back to the décomposition of vegetable remains which flourished in âges past. From the surrounding formations, and the depth at which the oldest coal-beds are found, it is calculated that the végétation which has been converted into coal must hâve had its existence not less tlian two million years ago.
  - Coal varies in quality and is of different nature according to whetlier the végétation by the décomposition of which it is formed, consisted of marine, land, or marsh growths ; but so far as the production of gaseous and liquid fuels is concerned, it suffices to dilferentiate nierely between those coals which are rich and those which are poor in gas. The process of formation of minerai coal is not yet completed, and even at the présent time its composition continues to change slowly. This is shown by the great or small variations in the gases—methane, marsh-gas, or carburetted hydrogen, and carbonic acid, etc.,—which occur in ail collieries. Attention may be called to the continuous loss of gas by the coal, due to the beat of the earth and to the pressure of the rock strata over the coal seams. It is not possible to turn to account in any practical way these natural gases—marsh gas, carbonic acid —which issue from coal workings. Up to the présent time, in fact, these gases hâve been looked upon as irrémédiable evils against which it is neces-sary to take spécial précautions.
  - Liquid fuel derived from minerai coal is not found in a natural state, and to within the last few years it was obtained solely in the form of tar, from common coal or brown coal, carbonised or dry distilled ; that is to say, heated in the absence of air in closed retorts.
  - By further distillation of coal tar by itself, liquid hydrocarbons, known collectively in the trade as crude benzol, are obtained, these consisting of a mixture of benzene, toluene, and xylene. This crude benzol is eminently suitable for working engines, but was formerly obtainable in quantities much too small for its use as an engine fuel to become general. Only 40 lbs. to 50 lbs. of tar are produced by the carbonisation of 1000 lbs. of common coal,
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- - 6
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - and from tliis tar only 1 to 1*5 per cent, ofcrude benzol can be produced. Moreover, for some of tlie components of crude benzol, there was a ready market in connection with the colour industry. Now, liowever, tliese conditions are materially altered, tlie change having talc en place on the discovery thafc the extraction of the benzol from coke-oven gases was feasiblc. Larger quantifies of crude benzol are now obtainable, and this substance is found to hâve many advantages over the distillâtes of crude petroleum.
  - As these liquid distillâtes of common coal—benzol, etc.—will, without doubt, play a very important part in the future, it perhaps will be of interest to give a brief description of the method by which they are obtained.
  - As already stated, the quantity of benzol given off by gas-tar is very srnall. It is présent in much larger quantities in lighting gas itself, which contains twenty times as much as the tar simultaneously produced. Unfortunately, it must not be removed from the lighting gas, as the lighting powor of illuminating gas is dépendent upon the percentage of benzol it contains. But conditions are much more favourable in the case of coke-oven gas, a by-product in the manufacture of coke, which a few years ago was only used for firing boilers. It is true that coke-oven gas contains less benzol tliau lighting gas (the treatment of 1000 lbs. of coal yields about 7 lbs. of crude benzol), but it is produced in such large quantities that the benzol obtained from it in one single year, 1900, amounted to about 70 million kgs. (154 million lbs.). As coke-oven gas is only used for heating and never for lighting purposes, ail the crude benzol it contains may be removed without detrimental effect. The treatment of coke-oven gas for the recovery of crude benzol and other by-products, prior to its use for heating purposes, was introduccd in Cermany towards the latter end of tlie ’eighties. From that time onwards, the production of benzol increased to such an extent that its price, which stood at 400 marks per 100 kgs. (£203 per ton) in 1882, fell to 21 marks (£10, 10s.) in 1901. For the treatment of coke-oven gas to remain profitable, it became necessary to find other and wider fields tliau hitherto existed, in which benzol might be put to advantageous use. With its application to motor uses, an important market was opened up, and one having before it immense prospects. As crude benzol can be resolved by inexpensive methods into its component parts, which hâve respectively a higli and low boiling point, it is specially well adapted for use as an engine fuel. The component which boils at a low température is utilised in the colour industry, while that boiling at a high température is better suited for motive power. The two products, therefore, are put to uses so distinct that the sale of one is in no way préjudiciai to that of the other. This décomposition of crude benzol is due to the Rütgerswerke Company, which lias placed upon the market, under the name of “ ergin,” a mixture of benzol distillâtes, which can be used for most internai combustion engines and which is actually tlie cheapest fuel of its kind procurable.
  - The fact that brown coal can be made to yield liquid fuel lias been known for a long time. In the case of this class of coal, the liquid fuel obtained is
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- - THE ORIGIN AND EXTRACTION OF LIQUID FUELS.
  - 7
  - known as “ solarol ” ; it is obtained in the brown coal distilleries, of wliich the most important are situated in tlie neighbourhood of Leipzig and Halle.
  - The brown coal used for this purpose is of an earthy nature and will not bear handling or transporting. In contrast with the process by whicli common coal is treated and which yields coke as the main product, and benzol, ammonia, and coke-oven gas as by-products, brown coal yields tar as the main product, from which paraffin and solarol are subsequently obtained. The coke ash, which remains in the oven, and the gas form, in this instance, the by-products. The former is used, under the name of “Grude coke,” in kitchen fires, while the gas serves for heating boilers or for driving gas engines.
  - By the dry distillation or carbonisation of peat, wood, rosins, and fats, liquid fuels are also obtained which are suitable for working gas engines. So far, however, they hâve met with no practical application, while at the same time they are far too costly and not easily obtainable.
  - (c) Alcohol.
  - In addition to the distillâtes of crude petroleum and coal, alcohol forms a fuel which possesses many qualifies that make it especially suitable for use in motors. Alcohol can be obtained in many different ways, the most common method being the fermentation of vegetable matter containing sugar, or a large proportion of farinaceous substances. In Germany, the cheapest raw material at the présent time for the production of alcohol is the potato. It may happen, however, sooner or later, that alcohol will be obtained by some different method, or from other vegetable matter cheaper still.
  - Potato alcohol, as found on the market and as used for working engines, is known as potato spirit. It is diluted with 10 to 15 per cent, of water, and rendered non-potable by the addition of fusel-oil. Its price varies with the abundance of eacli potato harvest, and this fact has greatly hindered its general introduction as a liquid fuel for engines. In order to meet this difficulty, the trust of Gertnan spirit manufacturers decided, about five years ago, to sell motor spirit at a uniform price over the whole of Germany up to 1908, provided the engine owners eacli undertook to buy annually 5000 kgs. (11,000 lbs.). The price was ffxed at 15 marks per 100 kgs. (about 6s. 8d. per 100 lbs.) for the winter, from November lst to May 15th; and 16 marks (7s. 3d. per 100 lbs.) for the summer months, from May 16th to October 3lst. At these prices, the cost of using spirit in engines is approximately équivalent to that of using petrol.
  - This decision on the part of the spirit manufacturers has greatly aided the introduction of spirit motors. Over this same period, however, the prices of spirit for other purposes liave varied enormously, and at times they hâve risen by over 100 per cent. So far as the author is aware, the spirit trust has not renewed its agreement with the engine owners, and tlius the development of alcohol engines has received another clieck. The motors shown at the seventeenth exhibition held by the Gcrman Agricultural Society in 1903 at Ilanover, wrere almost exclusively alcohol motors. At the exhibi-
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- - 8
  - OIL MOTOliS.
  - tion held ili 1906 at Berlin the number of engines using petrol and “ergui” already preponderated to a somewhat large degree. At tlie exhibition held this year (1907) there was scarcely one alcoliol motor to be found.
  - As our supplies of coal and crude petroleum are not renewable, and do not exist in inexhaustible quantity, there is no doubt but that \ve shall hâve to dépend more and more in the future upon such liquid fuels as can be produced from existing végétation. So long as the sun shines upon the fields, we shall be able with safety year by year to dépend for the production of spirit upon the fruits of the earth. On the other hand, we are in uncertainty as regards the coal- and oil-fields which may become available. By xising minerai fuel, we are utilising the heat which the sun gave out thousands of years ago ; by using vegetable spirit, we are utilising the heat of the sun given off during the présent period. The more nearly the supplies of minerai fuels become exhausted, the more dépendent will we be upon vegetable and animal kingdoms. The agriculture of the future, therefore, will not only be devoted to the raising of crops suitable for the nourishment of men and animais, but also, and in a constantly increasiug proportion, to the growing of plants and fruits from which concentrated fuels may be obtained ; and these will be employed for the purposes of producing heat, power, and light, which are not less important to us than food itself.
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- - CH APTE 11 II.
  - LIQUID FUELS AS A ME ANS FOR POWER PRODUCTION.
  - Notwitiistanding the abundance of natural fuels, there is scarcely one which, without some preliminary treatment, can be used in internai combustion motors. Nearly ail of tliem are chemically impure ; that is to say, tliey possess otlier properties besides those of a simple fuel. Thus far the only successful internai combustion motors liave been engines worked with gaseous or liquid fuels ; and no practical internai combustion motors using fuel in a solid form bave been built.
  - In tbe présent volume we sball deal only with engines using liquid fuels. Ail these fuels are industrial products which were not, originally, intended for lise for engine vvorking. To utilise them, the engine-builder was forced to adjust the design of his motor to suit their several properties. More recently, howevor, it lias been abundantly proved that the fuels can also be niade to suit the engine in which tliey are to be used for the génération of power, and it is to be hoped that, by the collaboration of thoughtful manufacturera witli the engine-builders, great progress in engine construction will resuit.
  - A good fuel for engines sliould combine in itself the following char-acteristics :—
  - 1. High calorific value.
  - 2. Cheapness. It must be easily procurable.
  - 3. Complété combustibility, leaving no deposit of a solid or liquid nature.
  - 4. Absence of smell, both of the fuel itself and of its products of combustion.
  - 5. It should be easily vaporiscd or atomised.
  - 6. Its vapour, or finely atomised spray, should be capable of mixture with
  - air, within the widest limits, resulting in a stable association.
  - 7. Certainty of the firing of the mixture of fuel and air by the ordinary
  - methods employed for ignition.
  - 8. Possibility of compression of the mixture to the higliest limits.
  - 9. Minimum fire and explosion risks.
  - Bearing in mind the nature of these requisite characteristics, it will be found that the available liquid fuels may be classified as foliows : —
  - Benzine or petrol having a spécifie gravity of 0'65 to 0*71.
  - 9
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- - 10
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Paraffin or kerosene having a spécifie gravity up to 0-865.
  - Crude benzol.
  - “ Ergin.”
  - “ Solai'ol.’'
  - Spirit.
  - Petrol.
  - The calorific value of petrol is very high; it ranges from 10,000 to 10,400 calories1 (18,000 to 18,720 B.Th.U.) ; while common coal has a value of only 7500 (13,500 B.Th.U.), coke 6500 (11,700 B.Th.U.), and wood 2800 (5040 B.Th.U.). The price of motor petrol has fluctuated considerably. In 1894, when the first Gennan édition of this work appeared, petrol of 0-68 spécifie gravity cost 16-75 marks per 100 kgs. (about 7s. 6d. per 100 lbs.) ; in 1897, it cost only 13 marks (about 5s. 9d. per 100 lbs.); in 1901, its price was 29 marks (about 13s. per 100 lbs.); and in July 1907, 37 marks (about 16s. 8d. per 100 lbs.) (ls. 8d. per gallon).
  - It should be remarked here that by a prescription of the German Fédéral Council dated 2nd December 1885, petrol, “ligroin,” naphtha, and other Petroleum distillâtes of spécifie gravity less than 0"79, employed for power génération, may be used free of duty, subject, however, to certain régulations, so far as industrial purposes are concerned.
  - The tax levied on petrol amounts to 7"75 marks per 100 kgs. (about 3s. 6d. per 100 lbs.).
  - A suitably proportioned mixture of air and petrol will, when ignited, resuit in complété combustion, there being no fluid or solid residue. Engines run on petrol, provided that cylinder lubrication is properly carried out, seldom require cleaning, and the exliaust gases hâve no unpleasant smell. When it happens that automobiles using petrol émit a disagreeable odour, the cause of this is not attributable to the products of combustion of the petrol, but to the half-burnt lubricating oil, which, in cases of over-lubrication or defective construction, is driven into, tlirough, and out of, the exliaust pipe. As will be subsequently explained, oil vapours hâve the property of remaining suspended for a long time in the air, and to these must be traced the objectionable smell which automobiles leave behind them.
  - Petrol belongs to the most volatile class of fuels used for internai combustion engines, and at températures as low as about 0° C. (32° Fahr.), it evaporates naturally in quantities suffîcient to form, with air, mixtures which, when burnt in confined spaces, resuit in great increase of pressure, and it is in this way that they can be utilised for driving engines. The volatility of petrol increases rapidly with a rise of température, and if its température be raised even to 15° C. (59° Fahr.), the original mixture would be so enriched as to contain more fuel than could be burnt,
  - 1 The heat-unit used liere is the quantity of beat required to raise the température of one kilogramme of water tlirough one degree centigrade. The calorific value of the various fuels giveri is expressed in ternis of kilogramme-calories per kilogramme. This quantity may be converted to B.Th. U. per lb. by multiplying it by l'8.
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- - LIQUID FUELS AS A ME AN S FOR POWER PRODUCTION.
  - 11
  - and more air must be supplied to it in order to render it suitable for use in engines.
  - The mixture of petrol vapours with atmospheric air takes place witli extra-ordinary rapidity. The small four-cycle petrol engines of motor-cycles hâve a speed of over 2000 révolutions per minute, so that each separate rnixing period occupies only the seventieth part of a second, and in spite of this, the firing takes place regularly, and the power developed by these motors is immensely satisfactory.
  - The association of the petrol-vapour and air in these mixtures is also perfect. The so-called air-gas plants,1 which supply whole towns with gas, afford proof of the fact that mixtures of petrol vapours and air, used in this way, eau be conveyed over great distances tlirough pipes, and distributed without losing in any way their inflammable and combustible qualifies.
  - With reference to the inflammability of petrol-air mixtures, it should be mentioned that of the methods of ignition now common {e.g. incandescent bodies, electric spark, and beat of compression), the flrst two only are utilised with petrol motors.
  - In the flrst of these, ignition-tubes are made red-hot, to secure firing of the charge at the right instant. The provision and maintenance of a safe and economical lamp for heating these ignition-tubes, is a matter of some diffleulty, and, as the Fire Insurance régulations only permit of the use of heating lamps on condition that certain spécial précautions are taken, tube-ignition is seldom resorted to, and tlius, in the case of petrol motors, ignition by means of the electric spark alone remains available. Low-tension magneto-electric ignition devices are used for stationary slow-speed engines ; in high-speed automobile engines, the voltage is raised by the use of an induction coil. In petrol motors a higlx compression of the charge is not permissible. Even at 5 atms. (73*5 lbs. per sq. in.), knocking occurs in the engine, due to prématuré ignition, and this reduces its power. The least favourable point connected with the use of petrol is the great risk of fire and explosion with which it is attended. Although the Fire Insurance Companies prescribe a large number of precautionary measures,2 having reference to the installation of petrol engines, and the insurance policy provides for their due enaetment, too great a care in the use of this fuel is hardly possible. With the great increase of recent years in the use of automobiles, it lias become necessary to store in the towns large quantifies of petrol, and the construction of appliances by means of which the fire risks due to the presence of large stocks of petrol will be reduced to a minimum, is most commendable.
  - 1 Undcr the naine of “ air gas ” are known ail the ligliting gases formed by the mixture of the vapours of the liglit hydrocarbons with atmospheric air, sucli as “ aerogengas,” “ benoydgas,” “ liomogengas, ” etc.
  - 2 The conditions laid down by the insurance companies are reproduced in the chapter dealing with the installation of engines.
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- - 12
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Paraffin Oil or Kerosene.
  - Under the name of paraffin, we class, for engine purposes, ail the distillâtes obtained within the température limits of 150° to 270° C. (302° to 518° Fahr.) having spécifie gravities between 0'73 and 0'86.
  - ïhe calorific value of the different sorts of paraffin oil dépends upon the source of supply and the care taken in the distillation ; it may be taken as varying from 10,000 to 11,000 calories (18,000 to 19,800 B.Th.U.). Among ail the fuels on the market, therefore, paraffin oil combines the greatest calorific value vvith the least bulle, and for this reason, particularly if only the distillâtes given off at high températures be considered, paraffin oil is much cheaper than petrol. Paraffin oil, such as is used in Diesel engines, costs 10 to 12 marks per 100 legs, (about 5s. 4d. per 100 lbs.), while petrol costs 37 marks (about 16s. 8d. per 100 lbs.). These heavy distillâtes are obtainable in large quantities, and conform also in every way to the condition requiring their complété combustion, i.e. the absence of any solid or liquid rcsidue, when the engine supplies, etc., are properly regulated. J udged, therefore, with reference to its calorific value, cheapness, and complété combustion, no objection can be raised to the use of paraffin oil or kerosene. It does not, however, satisfy equally well the otlier conditions required of a good fuel for internai combustion engines. The cheap and so-called heavy distillâtes hâve a strong and disagreeable odour ; the products of combustion from most parafiin-oil motors are so obnoxious owing to their objectionable smell, that energetic means liave been taken to restrict the use of such engines in towns and thickly populatcd districts. In the Diesel engine, and others which work on a similar principle, the paraffin oil is completely burnt up, and the exliaust is practically invisible and without smell; but the strong odour of the fuel itself in the case of these engines, is also noticeably disagreeable in small and badly ventilated engine-rooms.
  - But the greatest obstacle to the use of paraffin in the engines built on the usual gas and petrol motor types, lies in the difficulty experienced in forming and maintaining a proper mixture of paraffin and air. Ail the lcinds of paraffin available only begin to give off vapours at températures higher than that of the air, and the fuel must therefore be vaporised by artificial means. TJnlike petrol, paraffin is not a substance with closely defined limits of distillation températures, but is a combination of liydrocarbons, the boiling points of which lie between the limits of 150° C. and 300° C. (302° to 572° Fahr.). To this is added a further disadvantage, for it happens that, even at températures below 572° Fahr., a Chemical décomposition of paraffin into “fat-gas” commences ; this is an undesirable feature, as it entails a modification in the proportions of the mixtures employed. Hence, in engines in which mixtures of a certain definite composition are to be formed and maintained for a given lengtli of time, évaporation must not take place at either too low or too high a température ; and care must also be taken that during the time the mixture remains as such in the engine, it must neither become too cool nor too hot.
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- - LIQUID FUELS AS A MEANS FOR POWER PRODUCTION.
  - 13
  - A fall in température below 572° Fahr. is less detrimental than a rise above tbat limit, for the paraffin yapours, as soon as they corne into contact with cooler air, do not return immediately to the liquid state, but remain suspended, forming a kind of mist or, in other words, minute bubbles of liquid paraffin containing air. This atomised paraffin may be easily mixed with a further supply of air, and so consumed. But, if tliese bubbles encounter solid bodies, impinging, for instance, on the walls of the cylinder or other parts of the engine at a lower température than that at which they vaporise, they return immediately to the liquid state and cannot thus be efficiently used.
  - The vaporisation of paraffin in large quantities in advance, and its utilisation in the form of vapour in a manner similar to that in which a gas would be employed, has not been found practicable, as, in this case, it is a question of dealing with real vapours and not with permanent gases. Better success has attended attempts to produce a uniform mixture, by carefully measuring the amount of finely sprayed paraffin required for eacli stroke, the air neces-sary to complété combustion being supplied with it or immediately after its introduction into the cylinder.
  - The design of apparatus suitable for performing the necessary function of measuring, vaporising, and heating the paraffin ; the ways and means of effecting the supply of the air required ; the protection of the mixture against unduo cooling, are problems, for the solution of which ail manner of devices hâve been suggested during the last décades. It cannot be said, however, that any solution of an altogether satisfactory nature has, so far, been found. It will thus be seen that botli the formation of the desired mixture and its préservation as a permanent vapour are, when paraffin oils are employed, matters of no little difficulty. So troublesome are these points, in fact, that endeavours hâve been made to constrüct engines in which at least one of these characteristics should be eliminated. Very satisfactory examplcs of motors working under such conditions can now be cited, as, for instance, the well-known Diesel engine and motors of this type which are designed on these principles. In these engines no mixture is formed ; the petrol is consumed the instant it cornes in contact, in a finely divided form, with the highly heated air.
  - Of the properties of paraffin considered as fuel for combustion engines, tliere still remain to be mentioned its inflammability, the beliaviour of the mixture under compression, and the fire risks its use entails. With regard to its inflammability, it may be said that, of ail liquid fuels, it is set alight at the lowest température. In paraffin motors fitted with tube-ignition, the mixture is ignited with certainty and at the correct instant, even if the température of the tube is so low that it is below red-heat. This characteristic of ready inflammability has been taken advantage of in the Diesel engine, and the ignition of the paraffin spray injected is efiected without rislc of misfire by the beat of the compressed air of combustion alone. It may be remarked here that the charge of atomised paraffin is introduced at the moment of maximum compression.
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- - 14
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - One resuit of this feature of ready ignition of paraffin-oil vapour, is that when mixed with air, a high degree of compression is not possible, as tbe increasing density of the hot air, and hot paraffin particles, facilitâtes ignition. The combustion of the mixture under sucli conditions takes place with extra-ordinary rapidity, and is in the nature of an explosion, for ignition occurs througliout the whole volume of gas or vapour simultaneously, and not as in the earlier types of engines, from one point only. As a compression pressure of 4 atms. (58'8 lbs. per sq. in.) is sufficient to produce automatic self-ignition, it is not possible to utilise the great advantages of high compression in engines using a ready-made mixture. In Diesel engines, on the contrary, the high compression of the air can be utilised to the best advantage ; in the case of tliese engines combustion will never resemble an explosion, for no compression of the mixture of air and paraffin vapour occurs, the commencement and duration of the process of combustion being dépendent on the instant at which the charge of paraffin spray is forced into the cylinder and on the length of time occupied in introducing the charge.
  - As regards risk of danger by lire, paraffin may be said to comply fairly well with the requirements, for, although it lias a low flash-point, it is the least dangerous of ail the liquid fuels. A well-lighted match tlirown upon the surface of paraffin does not set it aliglit. The régulations in force in Germany provide that only such paraffin-oil distillâtes shall be put on the market as hâve a flash-point, i.e. give olf combustible vapours at a température not lower tlian 21° C. (69'8° Fahr.). Should tliese vapours become ignited, this is not accompanied by ignition of the liquid paraffin oil ; the fiâmes are extinguished without connnunicating sufficient heat to the surface of the liquid to resuit in the formation of further vapours for feeding the liâmes. It is only when the liquid is lieated thoroughly to a température above 30° C. (86° Fahr.) that a steadily burning flame is possible.
  - The low tire risk of paraffin oil compared with that which is involved in the use of other liquid fuels, is its best recommendation, and the introduction of a good, cheap, safeworking paraffin motor would be an assured success, since the use of the other liquid fuels, petrol, benzol, and alcohol, ail entail great dangers.
  - Paraffin lias not always been so free from danger from fire ; when first distilled the processes wore not carried out with the care that now obtains, and it containcd in solution, in the earlier days, no small amount of volatile hydrocarbons, which in evaporating led to the formation of explosive mixtures. In addition to this, paraffin was generally shipped in wooden casks, which are not gas-tight, and the vessels carrying paraffin oil or kerosene from America were exposed to the danger of explosions. Tliese oil ships were furnished with a windmill or aeromotor on deck, which worked an air-pump for exhausting the gases from the ships* holds. But in spite of these précautions, numerous accidents occurred, and in the early ’eighties great sums were paid for efficient devices designed with a view to preventing explosions on oil-carrying vessels. One device which was tried cotisisted of placing in
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- - LIQUID FUELS AS A MEANS FOR POWER PRODUCTION.
  - 15
  - the ships’ holds tanks containing liquid carbonic acid ; these cordd be opened from on deck, and by this means the whole cargo conld be immersed in carbonic acid gas, an effective fire-proof covering.1
  - Eow that the volatile constituent» of crude oil hâve found a large market and fetch higher priées than even lamp oil, their séparation is carried ont with great care. The inflammability of lamp oil now forms the subject of suitable rules and régulations, and hardly any explosions now occur through the storage of paraffin oil, or, in other words, kerosene.
  - Benzol.
  - The value of benzol as a fuel is as high as that of petrol, being about 10,300 calories (18,540 B.Th.U.), but it costs much less; the présent price is 22 marks per 100 kgs. (about 10s. per 100 lbs.).2 Up to the middle of the ’eighties benzol was obtained from gas tar only, and was mainly used in the aniline dye industry. At that time it was so expensive that its use in engines was altogether ont of the question. But when, in the early ’nineties, it became possible to produce benzol in large quantities from coke-oven installations, the output soon exceeded the demand, the price fell to 20 marks (about 9s. per 100 lbs.), and fresh markets had to be found. The last means of mailing use of it was soon found to be its employment as fuel for internai combustion engines.
  - When produced as a clear distillate, benzol burns without leaving any solid or liquid deposit, as do petrol and paraffin. Its smell, however, is unfortun-ately rather strong —stronger, in fact, than either that of petrol or lamp-oil. Its products of combustion are, on the other hand, almost odourless, and not anything like so offensive as the smell of the burnt gases of paraffin motors.
  - The formation and maintenance of the explosive mixture is, however, not so easy as with petrol. Nevertheless, motors using benzol can be run in cold weather without having to resort to warming, and petrol motors may he run with benzol without any alteration. The main advantage of benzol over petrol and paraffin is that it allows of much higher compression than is possible with paraffin. Again, working on benzol at présent prices, is much cheaper than with petrol, since high compression can be taken advantage of.
  - Bisk of fire with benzol is not much less than with petrol, and in this respect it ranks below paraffin. Enterprising chemists and engine builders soon found that the properties of benzol could be improved, if the fire risks its use entails and its disagreeable smell could be overcome without materially altering its good qualifies. It was found to be only necessary to separate from it its highly volatile and low volatile components, for botli of which there are favourable markets. The residue thus obtained forms an idéal cheap fuel, one
  - 1 In a similar way, large quantities of petrol in bulle are protected from contact with air by carbonic acid gas.
  - 2 A purilied commercial benzol can be obtained from the Deutsche Benzol-Verreiniguim G. m. b. H., Boclium.
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- - 16
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - emitting but little smell, retaining its beat, highly compressible in mixture, and involving no fire rislts.
  - ïhe Riitgerswerke Chemical Company, Berlin, in particular, lias done much towards solving this problem, and for several years lias placed upon the market a liquid fuel called “ ergin,” for which there lias been a ready sale. “Ergin” now costs 17 marks per 100 kgs. (about 7s. 6d. per 100 lbs.); it has a calorific value of 10,300 heat units (18,540 B.Th.U.). With regard to ease of formation and maintenance of the explosive mixture, it is but little inferior to petrol and much superior to paraffin ; it is easily fired by the usual metliods of ignition ; permits high compression ; entails as little danger by fire as does parafiin ; and, like the latter, is subject to less stringent police enactments as regards storage than petrol. High compression being resorted to, consumption is much smaller than with petrol or paraffin. “Ergin” being also cheaper than petrol for the same weiglit, the horse-power-hour of an engine using this fuel works out at 3 to 5 pfs. ('3 to '5d.) against 10 to 12 pfs. (1 to l'2d.) in the case of an engine using paraffin. Worldng with petrol is, of course, dearer still.
  - Benzol, and also “ ergin,” can be mixed with alcohol, and mixtures of this nature are used in combustion engines to a considérable extent.
  - Alcohol.
  - In the case of the fuels derived from crude petroleum and coal, one has to deal with substances ricli in carbon, to which is due the fact that these fuels burn in the atmosphère witli a heavy and sooty smoke. Alcohol belongs to the class of fuels which are low in carbon ; wlicn lighted in air it burns with a bine, clear, non-sooty flame. If its Chemical composition be examined, it will be àt once évident also that its calorific value is much lower than that of the fuels considered above. We hâve already stated that paraffin has a calorific value of 11,000 heat units (19,800 B.Th.U.) ; petrol and benzol, values up to 10,300 (18,540 B.Th.U.) ; but alcohol has only 5500 to G000 (9900 to 10,800 B.Th.U.). Its cost is also higher than that of paraffin and benzol, and fluctuâtes very much, being entirely dépendent upon the resuit of the potato harvest.
  - Alcohol conforms fairly satisfactorily to the requirements, so cssential to a good engine fuel, of burning without leaving a deposit ; alcohol spirit-motors are troubled with no solid or liquid deposits, even wlicn they receive but little attention. On the other liand, the conditions are suited to the formation of rust, and this has a very bad effect upon the cylinder wâlls and the valves. A satisfactory method of preventing this formation of rust has been found in running the motor for a few minutes before it is stopped, with petrol or benzol, instead of with alcohol right up to the finish. The provision of spécial devices is also necessary for working engines with these fuels. These hâve for their object the complété removal of ail remains of alcohol from the interior surfaces of the engine.
  - By the absence of smell in the alcohol itself, and in its products of com-
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- - LIQUID FUELS AS A MEANS FOR POWER PRODUCTION.
  - 17
  - bustion, this fuel lias attained to a very prominent position. As it smells tlie leasfc of ail liquid fuels, its use for automobiles lias been rendercd com-pulsory in several large towns.
  - Alcohol is little less volatile than petrol ; it must be heated in order that vaporisation and the formation of a working mixture may be produced, and, to accomplish this, use is made of the exliaust gases. The engine is gener-ally started and run with petrol until the exliaust pipe is sufficiently heated to vaporise the alcoliol spray and maintain a constant quality of mixture The introduction of the charge takes place through a jacket round tlie exliaust pipe or, conversely, through the pipe itself, the exliaust gases being led ont through the jacketing.
  - Ignition of the mixture of air and alcohol does not takc place at so low a température as with paraffin and petrol, but at about the same température as ligliting gas. In most cases, ignition is accomplished by means of elec-tricity ; but an ignition tube, heated by an alcohol vapour lamp, is ail that is really necessary. The most prominent characteristic of alcohol is that it lends itself readily to high compression ; it may even be said tliat it is mainly due to this feature that its introduction as an engine fuel lias been attended with success, for if it is considered from the point of view of thermal qualifies alone, the use of alcohol works out at almost double the cost of that of petrol or paraffin.
  - The great saving of fuel which accompanies the use of high compression— and in alcohol motors compression may safely be run up to 16 atms. (235 lbs. per sq. in.)—is, however, so appréciable that 1 horsc-power-hour can be produced for approximately the same weiglit of alcohol as of petrol.
  - The danger of fire and explosion when working with alcohol is less than with petrol, but greater than with paraffin oil. A lighted match thrown on the surface of alcohol ignites it immediately. But motor alcohol does not form any explosive mixtures with air at ordinary températures. The storage of alcohol is not subject to the stringent régulations in force for petrol, but to the more lenient ones drawn up for paraffin oil. A mixture may easily be made of 90 per cent, of alcohol dissolved in benzol or “ ergin,” and with su ch a solution the power of the engine is increased considerabty. Solutions formed of equal parts of alcohol and “ ergin ” are frequently used. In preparing sucli a solution, care must be taken to add the “ ergin ” or benzol to tlie alcohol, and not to perform the operation in the reverse way.
  - 2
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- - CHAPTER III.
  - THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PETROL AND PARAFFIN MOTORS.
  - The first records of petrol and paraffin engines may be traced back to a period contemporaneous with the first gas engines. In an English patent takcn out as early as 1838 by 0110 William Barnett, it was clearly stated that the gas engine there referred to could also be worked witli some easily volatilised hydrocarbon. Although it may be takcn for granted that the Barnett engine was not a practical one, but a design which existed solely as a “patent,” the fact shows that even at that early date it was fully realised that an easily volatilised hydrocarbon could be used for driving motors.
  - A part frotn the circumstance that in the year 1867, so-called atmospheric gas engines, placed on the market by Otto and Langen (the predecessors of the Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz), were worked in different ways with gasoline gas produced by causing air to pass over the surface of petrol, the first engine worked direct with petrol may be said to liave been that built in 1873 by Julius Hock, of Vienna. Tins was known at that time in the trade as a Petroleum engine, and was built in Germany by the Maschinenfabrik Humboldt, Kalk, near Cologne.
  - This name really implied too much, for it was not actually the less danger-ous lamp oil which was used, but petrol, and such an arbitrary désignation resulted in ail manufacturera of petrol motors classifying tlieir engines as “ petroleum ” motors as recently as the latter end of the ’eighties.
  - When, later on, in the early ’nineties, the engines which actually do work with paraffin made tlieir appearance, manufacturera were obliged to amplify their announcemcnts by stating that tlieir engines really did work with petroleum oil fuel. These matters, however, gradually became straightened out ; automobiles came more and more to the front, petrol came to be the best fuel for this work, and, at the présent time, no maker hésitâtes to call his engines which are worked with the latter fuel, petrol motors.
  - The Hock Petrol Engine.—The engine illustrated in fig. 1 works on the Lenoir gas-engine cycle. The piston draws in the explosive mixture during a part of its forward stroke; the mixture is ignited and performs work, driving the piston forward to the end of the stroke.
  - The explosive mixture consists of air and petrol spray, air being drawn through the nozzle G and the fuel through the nozzle b. The current of
  - 18
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- - THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PETROL AND PARAFFIN MOTORS.
  - 19
  - air crosses the path of the incoming fuel wliich is thereby atomised. The air and fuel spray thus form the explosive mixture. Ignition is performed by means of a gasoline gas flame, which is produced afresh for each complété cycle at the moment when ignition must take place. This is accomplished by directing a jet of this gas through a steadily burning flame, against a flap valve in the cylinder cover. At the correct instant this valve, by reason of the suction of the piston, is only held lightly on its seat, and it opens sufficiently for the flame to corne in contact with the charge. The periodic formation of the gasoline gas jet is obtained by a connecting rod working a kind of bellows which communicates with a tank filled with gasoline.
  - At the moment the explosion talces place, the air inlet and the ignition valves close auto-matically. On completion of the working stroke, the exhaust valve is opened by a rod driven off an eccentric on the shaft, and the products of combustion are allowed to escape to the exhaust.
  - The speed of the engine is regulated by allowing of the formation of a stronger or a weaker mixture as described.
  - According to the adjustment of the air regulator valve in the casting i, a large or small volume of “ additional ” air is sup-plied to the mixture, the re-sulting pressure of combustion varying in proportion.
  - If the Hock engine and valve gear be considered from an engine-builder’s standpoint, it can hardly be tormed other than au experimental engine. It contained a large number of original features. For the first time, use is made of the open-ended cylinder, of the trunk piston and direct drive on to
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- - 20
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - the crank, a System now in general \ise for modem gas, petrol, and paraffin engines of comparatively small power. The Hoclt engine, of course, was never widely adopted.
  - In 1876 a now petrol motor was introduced in America, which, on account of its System of working, aroused great interest. This was the
  - Brayton Petrol Engine,
  - illustrated in figs. 2 and 3.
  - Ail gas engines built up to that time miglit be classified as “mixture-forming ” engines, in which the charge, drawn into the cylinders, was burnt after ignition by electric sparks, giving consomption results which were largely dépendent on the nature of the fuel. The process employed in this engine was quite different, régulation being obtained by mechanical means.
  - In the Brayton engine, the fuel and the necessary air are separately com-prossed in the working cylinder, and ignition takes place by an internai flame burning under pressure, the instant they corne into contact with each other. Compression and combustion of the fuel in the working cylinder occur during only a small portion of the stroke ; for the remaining portion of the stroke, the expansion of the products of combustion takes place and useful work is porformed. The running of the Brayton engine resembles, therefore, that of the steam engine. The cut-off in the steam engine corresponds here to the period of combustion. At the end of the stroke, action is reversed and the gases are driven out through the exhaust valves.
  - As shown in fig. 2, an air-compressor is ayranged beneath the working cylinder; this pump supplies a receiver with compressed air, and this air is dclivered from the receiver to the working cylinder through inlet valves. On its way thither it passes through compartments filled with asbestos, separated from the cylinder by perforated métal plates or sheets and layers of wire gauze. The porous substance is constantly kept impregnated with petrol from a small pressure pump, so that the air flowing through it becomes saturated with the petrol vapour, thus forming a combustible mixture which is ignited by the flame burning under pressure. The wire gauze prevents any back-flash from reaching the mixing chamber. Petrol vapour is used for the ignition flame, which must be kept burning ail the while the engine is running. This vapour is supplied by the following means :—A small pipe conveys from the compressed air-receiver to the vaporising chamber a small supply of air, which is brought into contact with a portion of the petrol-impregnated asbestos. An inflammable mixture is thus formed in the clearance space, and may be set alight, at starting, through a hole fitted with a removable plug. The combustible medium, therefore, for both the ignition flame and for the driving or working flame, is derived from the same source, and firing of the fuel during the working-stroke is no more than an extension of the process of ignition to full and complété combustion of the charge. As the piston does not corne in contact with the cold outside air, and is always
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  - kept hot by the flame of the burning charge, it is necessary to encourage cooling by the use of liollow piston-rods. The motor must be started running
  - T3
  - P
  - *Sp
  - o
  - hP
  - O
  - CO
  - P
  - <
  - 03
  - S
  - ’Sb
  - p
  - p
  - <1)
  - CP
  - CT
  - ri
  - £
  - soon after lighting the ignition flame, as tins flame is extinguished as soon as its pi’oducts of combustion accumulating inside the clearance space reach the
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - same pressure as tliat of the comprcsscd air-recciver. For a similar reason the speed must not be allowed to fall below a certain limit.
  - The consumption of petrol per horse-power-hour is stated to hâve amounted
  - to only | Z * = t x 0-7 = 0-35 kg. (•77 lb.)—no more, therefore, than is consumed by a good oil engine of modem construction. The fact that a large number of patents were later taken out for engines designed on similar Unes, is sufficient proof that the Brayton System was considercd to be sound and of value. The working of the Diesel engine lias some resemblance to it.
  - The Brayton engine lias also been built of vertical form, with inverted cylinders, and tliis design was the prototype of the Simon engine, whicli works on the same principle, and was in use for a certain time. À low gas consurnption was also claimed for this engine, namely, 0-5 to 0‘6 cubic métré (17-7 to 2F2 cubic feet) per horse-power-hour for small types of from 4 to 6 horse-power.
  - About this time N. A. Otto invented the four-stroke-cycle compression gas engine, whicli, up to the présent time, continues as the standard type for most internai combustion engines. Gas-engine builders di-rected ail tlieîr energy to the development of this engine, and in a very short time a petrol engine made its appeàr-ance, whicli worked on the same principle as that employed in the compression type of engine. This first really serviceable engine working direct with liquid fuel, viz., that of Wittig and Hees, was built in the late ’seventies and early ’eighties
  - * Half a litre.
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  - by the Hannoversche Maschinenbau-Aktien-Gesellschaft, formerly Georg Egestorff.
  - ïbis engine is illustrated iu figs. 4, 5, and G ; it is, as will be secn, a two-stage engine. The mixture is formed in one cylinder, the second one being the working cylinder. The two pistons work on two cranks, keyed in line at 0°. On the pistons rising, mixture is drawn iuto the right-hand cylinder, while at the same time work is being perfonned in tîie left-hand one by the ignition of the mixture supplied to it. On the down-stroke the products of combustion are driven ont of the working cylinder, and the fresh mixture is
  - Figs. 4 and 5.—Wittig & Hees petrol engine.
  - delivered to it from the right-hand cylinder which acts as a compressor. Loss of mixture by way of the outlet valve is prevented by the gi’eat distance between the outlet passage and the inlet port, and by loading the cliange-over valve with a spring. When the working piston is midway on the down-stroke, the exhaust valve is closed, and, to the still coinparatively rich products of combustion, a fresh complementary charge then in the mixture pump cylinder is added by compression. As the mixture compressor piston travels right down to the bottom of its cylinder, and as clearance is provided for the charge, in the working cylinder only, the whole of the mixture is collected in the latter cylinder when the crank is on the dead centre.
  - The formation of the explosive mixture is performed, in this engine,
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - entirely on the so-called carburetting principle, which is now practically universally adoptée! in automobile engines. Figs. 5 and 6 show the very simple devices used for this. An air valve and a petrol valve are mounted side by side in a common mounting, and botli valves are mechanically openod on the suction stroke of the mixture pumps. The valves are separated by a diaphragm, in which a small opening is eut. Through this the air is drawn in, and being directed on to tbe jet of petrol, couverts it into spray. The petrol tank, which is also seen in fig. 5, is made fiat, and lies below the level of the petrol outlet in the engine ; by this means an occasional leakage from the valve, if this should happen to fit badly, cannot occur, and the suction level of the petrol varies but little. This thoroughly simple arrangement has pioved both satisfactory and durable.
  - That explosion motors would be found to be of the greatest importance for the working of stationary plant and of floating craft, was a fact early
  - IWorking \Cylinder
  - Air
  - Valve
  - Bach ! t Firing Valve
  - Fig. 6.—Wittig & Hees petrol engine.
  - recognised, and the management of the Hannoversche Masehinenbau-Aktien-Gesellschaft lost no time in fitting up one of thèse engines in a railvvay vehicle, which was used in their own yards, in order to test it in actual practice. Disputes over patents with the Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz, however, prevented the Hanover Company from proceeding further with their petrol motor, and this invention which was full of promise remained in abeyance.
  - In 1883, G. Daimler—who, until tlien, had been director of the Deutz Gasmotorenfabrik and established later the Daimler Motor Company—brought out a new petrol motor, which contained a number of novel features, and ou which the présent automobile motor is modelled.
  - Up to that time, even in the case of the smallest engines, the speed did not exceed 200 révolutions ; but Daimler ran bis new engine at 800 and more révolutions per minute. Ile chose the vertical inverted arrangement of cylinders, with crank shaft underneath, and with enclosed erank case in order that the mechanical parts might be protected from dust and from the action of the atmosphère. To Daimler is also due the introduction of a
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  - common lubricating device for the piston, crank pin, and crank shaft bearings, from an oil well inside the crank chambcr ; lie introduced also tlie liandle for the easy starting of the engine.
  - Besides ail these improvemcnts, whicli are still incorporated in nmnodified i'orm in the latest automobile engines, Daimler provided liis new motor witli a novel System of ignition, which is in reality at the présent day superior to ail otliers. Tliis was the well-known tube-ignition device which, although no longer used for automobile engines, is still
  - ° & 9 P*rrnl
  - preferred to others for smaller gas engines.
  - The increase in speed, now so common a feature, actually forms the cliief service ren-
  - Fetrol For Lami
  - Col d Air
  - Exhaust Valve
  - Figs. 7 and 8.—The Daimler petrol engine.
  - dered to the subject by Daimler in the matter of motor-car engines, for it provided a solution of the problem which had been worked at for fully a century, and resulted at once in an engine of large power and small weight.
  - Figs. 7 to 9 illustrate the Daimler engine as it was built in the later ’eighties for stationary installations.
  - For forming the working mixture, Daimler at that time did not hâve recourse to direct petrol supply, which as we hâve seen was the rnethod adopted in the Hanover Company’s engine, but used a device similar to that employed for the production of air-gas, in which air is passed through petrol so as to saturate it with petrol vapour.
  - Daimler attached importance to the petrol layer traversed by the air
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  - OIL MOTOKS.
  - being kept of a constant depth ; he also lieated the air before it was delivered inside the apparatus, in order that a constant amount of petrol vaponr migbt be taken up by it both in cold and in bot weather.
  - Fig. 9 shows the gas-producing device, now gencrally called a carburcttor. A float le, provided with a eonical opening T in tlie centre, rests, partly immersed, on the surface of the petrol. The air supply pipe c is fitted in the centre of the conical opening, and enters the petrol to a given depth. As the float is always immersed in the petrol to the saine extent, the air-pipe
  - s>*C
  - always dips down to the sanie level below the surface, and therefore the air •|> must always floAV up through the same height of petrol.
  - The petrol particles which are not vaporised are caught on the baffles d and e, and fall back to be used later. rl’he wire gauze mantles m and n serve to protect the inside of the carburettor from back-flashing. The partition o séparâtes the upper portion of the apparatus into two compartments. Fresh air enters the top one through the pipe a, passes thence down into the apparatus and through the petrol, and the petrol spray and air mixture so formed is supplied to the engine through the pipe/, which is connected to the lower part of the upper portion of the apparatus. When the mixture is too ricli, extra air may be supplied as desired through the valve g.
  - From figs. 7 and 8 it will be seen that the présent type of automobile engine is still very similar to the first Daimler engine. We may mention also, as a spécial feature, that in Daimler’s engine the inlet and exhaust valves were for the first time arranged together in one chamber or valve chest, one valve over the other with the valve heads opposite one an other, the arrangement reducing to a minimum the space occupied in former types by the valve casing and passages. The point of ignition was arranged in the space between where, therefore, the presence of inflammable mixture
  - Fig, 9.—The Daimler carburettor.
  - the two valve heads, was assured.
  - Speed régulation was obtained by periodically opening the exhaust valve, the conséquence of which naturally was that no fresh charge was drawn into the cylinder. The centrifugal governor k, arranged inside the driving pulley on the flywheel (fig. 7), lifts, whenever the normal speed is exceeded, the rod g (fig. 8). This rod opérâtes the “ hit and miss ” striker pivoted at /, pushing it inwards when the valve spindle is raised, and in this way pre-venting the valve from falling again on to its seat. The exhaust valve is normally worked by the cam c, which lifts the tappet rod or spindle ; but when the striker is in action the spindle is not worked by this cam. When, however, the speed falls again to normal the rod g is lowered, the striker is
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  - tripped, and the exhaust valve résumés its ordinary fonction, operated by the cam c, allowing a fresli charge to be drawn into the cylinder, resulting in an explosion in proper sequence.
  - We shall often meet with this metliod of régulation further on. It does not form part of Daitnler’s invention, but had been worlted out several years previously in the Korting Works.
  - Development of the Paraffin or Oil Engine.
  - The minerai oil distillâtes whose boiling points are high, thougli they are readily volatile substances, which corne between heavy petrol spirit with a spécifie gravity of 0‘72 and the minerai lubricating oils, require—as do also the distillâtes derived from common and brown coal—to be specially heated for atomisation in order to produce a working mixture. The main trouble experienced in the construction of a successful paraffin motor, not as yet satisfactorily overcome, is due to the difhculty of the régulation of the fuel, and of maintaining it at the necessary température under ail conditions. These heavier hydrocarbons are cheaper than any others on the market, and moreover are of greater calorific value than others. They hâve the further advantage of low fire risk, and eugine builders cannot therefore afford to abandon the task until some simple and safe, and at the same time low-priced paraffin motor is produced.
  - The nearest approack to a solution of the problem is the Diesel engine, in which the liquid fuel is transformed into a fine spray by air, heated by compression to ignition température and instantly burnt.
  - The Haselwander and Trinkler engines work on a similar prinoiple. In a large number of installations, as, for example, for small factories and for domestio and agricultural purposes, for automobiles and small motor boats, these engines working with compression pressures up to and over 30 atms. (410 lbs. per sq. in.) are not suitable. The failure of ail other paraffin motors on the simple petrol motor principle, i.e. forming a working mixture and working with low compression, is due to incomplète réduction of the fuel to gaseous form, incomplète combustion, and to the very disagreeable smell given off by the exhaust gases. Most of these engines also require at starting to be heated by lamps, or to be started on petrol. The adoption of these measures, however, increases the risk of tire, and instances in which tires hâve been caused by the heating lamps and the petrol used for starting are not unknown. Of greater moment, however, is the fact that they are not economical in working, on account of low compression only being permissible with paraffin vapour and air mixture. As stated in the second chapter on “ Liquid Fuels as a means for Power Production,” these mixtures cannot be compressed to pressui'es greater than 3^ to 4 atms. (52‘6 to 58'8 lbs. per sq. in.), on account of the risk of prématuré ignition of the charge.
  - Paraffin has, therefore, a large number of properties which are un-favourable to the engines. Every endeavour must be made, however, to use paraffin and the heavier oils, in simple four-stroke-cycle engines working at
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - pressures of 8 to 10 atms. (117*6 to 147 lbs. per sq. in.), as is now clone with enginos running on lighting gas. With such enginos it will probably be possible to obtain réduction in fuel consumption similar to that obtainable with Diesel engines. Wbile, with a compression of 3| atms. (52‘G lbs. per sq. in.), 350 to 400 grammes (*77 to *88 per lb.) of fuel are required per horse-power-hour, when running with compression pressures of 8 to 10 atms. (l^'ô to 147 lbs. per sq. in.), tlie same amount of work should be produced on a consumption of 200 to 250 grammes (-44 to *55 lb.), and tlie smell of the exhaust gases would also, in ail probability, be greatly diminished.
  - Figs. 10 and 11.—Kjelsberg paraffin engine.
  - Among the first mixture-forming paraffin-oil engines which hâve stood the test of actual practice, may be mentioned the Kjelsberg engine, placed upon the market in 1889 by the Lokomotivfabrik Wiuterthur.
  - The Kjelsberg Paraffin Engine of 1889.
  - Tins engine is provided with a carburettor taking the form of a heated chamber or cylinder separated from the main cylinder by the inlet valve, the llame kept burning to beat the ignition tube also being utilised to heat the carburettor. Speed is regulated by the Korting governor as described
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  - 29
  - above in connection with the Daimler engine, the exhaust valve being lield open periodically, and the inlet valve closed.
  - As seen in figs. 10 and 11, the valve, ail the steering, and the governor mechanism, are mounted at the side of the engine frame. The exhaust valve is shown to the left (fig. 11), and to the right the inlet valve, mechanically operated. The carburettor is placed quite close to the inlet valve seat, and consists of a vertical jacketed cylinder. The exhaust' gases from the Haine for heating the ignition tube, escape through the jacket and communicate to the wall of the inner cylinder the lieat required for vaporisation. A device for atomising the paraffin oil is fitted at the top part of the carburettor, through which is also drawn the air necessaiy to complété combustion. The paraffin spray is directed on to the heated surface of the wall of the carburettor, where it is evaporated, immediately forming the inflammable charge.
  - The inlet valve and the paraffin cut-otf dise valve, are worked together by the same cams, through the link s and the striker p. In front of the carburettor there is also an automatic air inlet valve, provided in order to prevent any small amount of paraffin vapour remaioing in the carburettor from entering the engine. When the normal speed is exceeded, the centri-fugal governor puslies over the bent lever r above the exhaust lever L, raising L and thereby holding the exhaust valve off its seat. To lever L is fitted an arm K, which, on any movement of the exhaust valve, draws the link s to the left, out of the way of the “ hit and miss ” rod p, of the inlet valve. Thus, while L is held up by the lever r, the inlet valve and the paraffin supply remain closed, and no charge is taken into the cylinder until the governor lias again freed the lever L.
  - The Capitaine Paraffin Engine.
  - Among the first engines in which the vaporising apparat us and the ignition tube were combined, the Capitaine paraffin engine should be mentioned. To this day this engine lias remained practically unaltered. It is built by the Maschinenbau-Aktiengesellschaft, formerly Ph. Swidersky of Leipzig-Plagwitz. This engine is illustrated in figs. 12 to 15. Fig. 14 shows the combined carburettor and ignition tube. This fitting consists of the com-paratively small conical tube F. The paraffin heating lamp, provided for heating the carburettor ignition tube, is marked G ; the ribs c on the outsidc of the vaporising chamber are intended to increase the heat-absorbing surface, and also to give it additional strength.
  - Before the suction stroke commences, the quantity of paraffin required for the charge lias been stored by the pump x in the space in front of the valve e. When suction commences, air is drawn through the port elifts the valve e off its seat, and blows the paraffin through into the vaporising chamber. Here, on coming into contact with the heated surfaces, the paraffin spray is evaporated, and in the sliape of a highly inflammable mixture, formed of paraffin and of the small amount of air which served to atomise it, it passes through the port / (fig. 14), and mixes with the air needed for
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - combustion drawn in at E. From the sliape and location of the carburettor it is évident tliat this apparatus will also perform the function of igniting the charge.
  - The valve gear, etc., in this engine, is unnecessarily complicated and inaccessible. It has been greatly simplified in the Company’s later models. In fig. 13, y is the exhaust cam ; on this runs the roller i, carried at the extremity of the lever e, which opérâtes the exhaust valve spindle. The cam n works the paraffin pump x, lifting the roller m and with it the crank
  - Figs, 12 and 13.—The Capitaine paraffin engine.
  - lever Idc (figs. 12 and 15). The lever le works in a slot eut in the pump piston o, working it backwards and forwards as the roller is lifted or allowed to fall by the action of the cam n. At another point in its révolution the cam n cornes into contact with the lover l, which works the dise valve of the oil pump.
  - The engine is governed in the same way as the Kjelsberg paraffin engine. The exhaust valve is occasionally held open, air suction and the drawing in of a fresh paraffin charge being temporarily prevented, until the speed falls to such an extent tliat explosions again become necessary. The counter-weight K in the governor (fig. 15) is swung out by centrifugal force, when the speed exceeds the normal limit. When in this position, it strikes, by
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  - means of the wedge plate r, the roller s carried by the bell cranlc sr, imparting motion to the lever t. The lever t is fitted with a pin u, and when the
  - valve lever raised by the cani g. The ex-liaust valve is thus prevented from return-ing to its seat, and at the same time the paraffin pump is also thrown ont of gear.
  - But while held open in this way, the exhaust valve, during tlie actual period of exhaust, is raised by the cam g so that the lever e is lifted off the pin u of the lever t, and this, bcing for an instant unloaded, is allowed to swing baclc as soon as the governor weight K moves in towards the centre, on the speed falling. The exhaust valve and the oil pump can then résumé their proper functions, and the charging is carried out regularly. In order that a regular quan-tity of paraffin may always be supplied to the engine, and in order that the heating lamp may always burn with the saine sized flame, it is necessary for the paraffin to be supplied to botli, under a uniform pressure. A higli level for the paraffin tank lias not been found necessary, and a portion of the space in the engine
  - 15.—Governor of the Capitaine paraffin engine.
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - bed plate is utilised for storing tho liquid fuel. Tliis fuel supply is kept under an unvarying pressure by means of an air-pump P (fig. 12), driven by tlie engine. Tlxis pump can be thrown out of geai-, and when tho engine is not running it can be started by hand in order to provide tlie pressure nceded by the heating lamp for starting.
  - Paraffin Engine on the Hornsby-Akroyd System.
  - Another typical paraffin engine System is tbat due to the Englisli engineer Akroyd, which dates from 1890. In this System the formation of a mixture does not take place during the suction stroke, but during the period of compression. The oil, for the time being separated from the air of combustion, is sprayed into a heated chamber filled with the gases of combustion re-maining from the former working stroke. In this chamber there is formed, during the suction period, a non-inflammable mixture of pai’affin vapour with products of combustion, and only the air required for combustion is drawn into the working cylinder.
  - The vaporising chamber in question communicates with the working cylinder simply by means of a comparatively small port, so that only a very small portion of its contents enter tlie working cylinder during the suction stroke. During the subséquent period of compression, air from the working cylinder is added to the paraffin vapours, and in this way the actual explosive mixture is made. When compression ceases and ail the air lias been driven into the vaporiser, there is there an inflammable mixture which ignitcs auto-matically at the right moment from contact with the heated walls of the vaporiser. In tho otlier Systems above described, the working mixture is formed during the suction stroke, and consequently the paraffin vapours corne into contact with the cooled cylinder walls. This is a distinct disadvantage. It will be remembered that paraffin vapours remain as sueh at low températures in the form of inflammable mist, only so long as they do not corne into contact with cold solids. The cylinder walls of engines must, however, be kept as cold as possible in order to obtain good mcchanical results and satisfactory lubrication. Ail paraffin vapour which cornes in contact with the cylinder walls is liquefiod, and is thus removed from the mixture and not consumed. The liquid paraffin becornes mixed, partly with the lubricating oil, and, on account of the higli température of the gases of combustion, is in part re-evaporated during the following working period, but cannot be efficiently burnt because thex’e is no air in the cylinder for its combustion. This portion of paraffin is, therefore, not utilised, and it is discharged with the exhaust gases. The température of the interior surface of the cylinder walls rises with each explosion, for the cooling effect of the water is not instantaneous. A part of the paraffin dissolved in the lubricating oil is also re-evapoi’ated, when the piston drives out the products of combustioix and leaves part of the cylinder walls exposed. The paraffin thus vaporised passes into the engine room, the air of which may bccome so vitiated that the attendant is ixnable to remain in it.
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  - The Akroyd engine as now built by the Aktieselskabet Frederikshavns Jernstoberi & Maskinfabrik, is illustrated in figs. 16 and 17. The working cylinder is shown at A ; Il is the air-inlet valve, I the exhaust valve, B the vaporiser and combustion ohamber. Paraffin is sprayed into the vaporiser by the small pump; shown in detail in fig. 17, tbrough the pipe F, during the
  - *SÈ§al B
  - Fig. 16.—Paraffin engine Akroyd System.
  - suction-stroke. The inlet mounting G is provided with a spécial water cooling arrangement, so that during the compression, working, and exhaust strokes, the high température of the vaporiser is not transmitted to the paraffin in the pipe, causing it to evaporate too soon. The engine is governed in a very simple way, by regulating the quantity of paraffin supplied. Should the engine run too fast, the governor opens a by-pass from which a part of the oil supplied by the pump (fig. 17) runs back to the oil-tank. The vaporiser is surrounded by a cover, in which is eut an opening E, and
  - 3
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - through which the heating llame is directed, and an opening E1 provided for the escape of the hot gases. Both opening,s are provided with damper doors, which must be closed whcn the engine lias to work for a long time at small load, or stops running for a short time.
  - The Akroyd patent is chiefly concerned with the port between the vaporiser and the working cylinder, and with tlie flap-valves for regulating the température of the former. The patent was taken out on 7th December 1890, and is therefore no longer valid in Germany.
  - The engine was first built by Iiornsby & Sons, England, and has been largely adopted in Sweden, Norway, Denmarlc, and Itussia. It is also built in Germany on the two-stroke-cycle principle, and provided with water jet.
  - Under the latter conditions higher de-grees of compression are possible, result-ing in more economical working.
  - The drawbacks to the Akroyd System are that the engine only works satis-factorily when the vaporiser is just lcept at the right température. The surface, volume, and the ventilation of the vaporiser chamber must be so proportioned that the highest permissible température will not be exceeded by continuous working at full power ; while on the other hand, the ignition température must be kept up in spite of a decrease of the power developed, within the widest limits possible.
  - The Akroyd engine cannot run for long under no load, or stand for long not working. In either case re-heating with the lamp is nccessary in order to make the engine run satisfactorily.
  - Too high a température of the vaporiser or combustion chamber has a very unfavourable cffect on the power developed by this and other paraffiu engincs, for “fat gas” is formed and the time of ignition retarded. It is even possible for the power in such cases to be reduced by as mucli as 40 per cent. Although these drawbacks are serions, the Akroyd System has the very distinct advantages of simplicity in construction and reliability in action. For installations in which the engine is kept running for a long time with steady load, not far short of its maximum, as in small sea-fishing craft and small corn-grinding mills, this type of engine will be found thoroughly reliable. Thcre are thousands of fishing boats fitted with these engines in Sweden and Denmark, while they are used in Russia for driving small grinding mills. In the latter country the fuel used is the very cheap crude oil.
  - Fig. 17.—ParaHin pump of the Akroyd engine.
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  - Fig. 18.—First Diesel experimental enginc, built in 1894, by tlie Mascliinenfabrik
  - Augsburg.
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - The Diesel Engine.
  - The most important paraffin motor at tlie présent time is thc Diesel engine.
  - While in the Systems akeady considérée! tlie charge is taken into the
  - Fig. 19.—Second Diesel experimental engine, builtin 1897, by the Masehinenfabrik
  - Augsburg.
  - working cylinder in a form ready for ignition, and uncontrolled combustion is permitted, in the Diesel engine neither the production of a working mixture nor the introduction of the charge in this form into the working cylinder occurs, the air for combustion alone being drawn into the cylinder. By high compression this air is raised to ignition température. At the end of the in-stroke, when compression lias reached its maximum, the necessary fuel is intro-
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  - 37
  - duced as a fine spray under a still greater pressure tlian that of the air inside the working cylinder. The duration of the spray and the quantity of fuel injected are regulated according to the power required, combustion lasting for either a long or short period, as a conséquence. The separate partiel es of fuel are consumed the very moment they corne in contact with the air necessary for their combustion. In the other Systems, uncontrolled combustion may be said to take place ; in the Diesel engine it is under positive control.
  - Many difficulties were at first met with in the use of the Diesel system, but owing to the untiring efforts of the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg, ail these hâve been surmounted, and now tliis engine, at least so far as the larger sizes are concerned, is not only reckoned to rank as one of the most reliable, but also as among the most economical and the quietest in running.
  - Figs. 18 and 19 show two phases of its development. Fig. 18 illustrâtes the first experimental engine as it was built in 1894 by the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg. As will be seen, the working cylinder is not water-jacketed.
  - Fig. 19 illustrâtes the form the engine took in 1897, which resembles rather more closely the type now in use. Sections of these engines were not obtainable, but dctailed working drawings of the latest types of Diesel engines are given in a later ehapter.
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- - CHAPTER IV.
  - THE WORKING OF THE LATER PARAFFIN AND PETROL ENGINES : THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND COMPONENT PARTS.
  - (a.) The Working of Paraffin and Petrol Engines.
  - It may be said tliat the number of ways and means of working possible with internai combustion engines, is unlimited. Reference to the lists of patents will show that almost half the patents taken out are concerned with new methods of working ; the number of these which hâve been used and hâve stood the test of actual practice is, comparatively, a very small one.
  - There is scarcely any other brancli of engine construction in which the niost correct and most promising schemes, from a theoretical point of view, hâve met with so many difficultés and hâve proved of so little real value on actual application, as lias been the case in the construction of internai combustion engines. It will be understood, therefore, that for ail engines, whetlior driven by gaseous or liquid fuel, the simple four-stroke-cycle principle, as used in the first Otto compression gas engine, still holds its position as the most generally adopted System of working.
  - The four-stroke-cycle is one in which the suction and compression of the charge, the performance of work and the discharge of the gases of combustion, take place in and from the same cylinder. It would unquestionably liave been grcatly préférable, from a purely theoretical standpoint, to cause the actual work and the compression to be done by mechanism strongly designed for this work, and the easier work of suction and exhaust by other and lighter mechanical parts, instead of making one set of mechanism perforai the double function, when two instead of four strokes would be required of each set of mechanism for each operation. This idea is always being advanced, and can be traced back to the earliest gas engines ; this corresponds with the simple and double-acting two-stroke-cycle principle. Theoretically, the two-stroke-cycle engine for equal dimensions of the working cylinder, working at the same speed, should develop twice the power of the four-stroke-cycle engine. Expérience shows, however, that the gain in work expected of smaller engines up to about 150 li.-p. is by no means realised in practice, as the fuel is utilised under much less favourable conditions than in the four-stroke-cycle ; and in reliability of working, these engines are less satisfactory than those
  - 38
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  - working on the four-stroke-cycle. The two-stroke-cycle engine for srnall powers, witli separate mixture pump, as embodied in the design of the Wittig & Hees engine described in the third chapter, lias never found general favour on the market.
  - Conditions are more favourable in the two-stroke-cycle engines, in whicli the front end of the cylinder is used as a charging pu'mp. These engines show the best results in the smaller sizes. A saviug in work of 50 to 60 per cent, is effected with equal-sized cylinders in these engines, over those running on the four-stroke-cycle principle ; design and construction can be kept down to comparatively simple lines, and fuel consumption will compare well with that of the four-stroke-cycle engine. But whether it can compare with the four-stroke-cycle in the matter of range of work, is a point on which there is., as yet, no clear evidence. As a type of so-called valveless two-stroke-cycle motors, the “ Sohulein ” engine may be mentioned. This is described later in this work. It is built by the Motorengesellschaft “ Solos,” Wiesbaden.
  - (b. ) The Construction of Paraffin and Petrol Engines.
  - In the construction of an engine the position of the working cylinder is the controlling factor in the design, and the engine is called horizontal, vertical, or inclined, according to its cylinder arrangement.
  - The horizontal position facilitâtes access, supervision, and attendance. This should be generally adopted in ail installations where the engine is used for stationary factory work, and the highest reliability in operation and long runs without a stop are necessary. The cliief drawback iu this arrangement is that it requires a large aniount of floor space.
  - As liquid fuel is not înuch used for factory driving purposes, the horizontal type of engine is but seldom met with.
  - The proper field for petrol and paraffin engines is really to be found where questions of movement or portability are involved, in vehicles and boats and portable power machines. In this field it liolds the first place, because this type of engine occupies but little space and is of the least possible weight ; its nioving parts are protected from dust, and it needs the least attendance of ail engines. These conditions can be best fulfilled by the vertical or inclined types.
  - In vertical engines, the crankshaft can be placed above or below the cylinders ; in order to improve the stability and quiet running of the engine it is, however, always placed underneath in the case of motors for vehicles. The practice of placing the crankshafts at the top was very popular for factory engines in the ’eighties, and although the arrangement presented many advantages on account of easy lubrication of the piston, convenient pipe-connections and belt arrangement, it is practically never adopted at the présent day.
  - There are, however, disadvantages in the vertical type of construction, such as difficulty of arranging the valves satisfactorily and of devising simple valve-gear, etc. Further, it is very sensitive to bad adjustment of the crank-
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  - UlL MOTOKS.
  - shaft. This lack of trutli of tho shaft occurs in course of years in almost ail engines, and is due to tlie fact that the power is always transmitted to it when the cranks are on one side of the centre line, or else to the fact that there is the weiglit of the llywheel on one side only. The crank in the end revolves in a plane inclined to the axis of the cylinder, forcing the connecting rod, and with it the piston, first towards one side and tlien towards the other. The engine ruus harder as time goes on, and wears rapidly. In horizontal engines this want of alignment caused by wear of the craukshaft lias not such an unfavourable influence, because the piston, by a slight twist in the cylinder, can adjust itself to the altered position of the crank.
  - Fig. 20.—Horizontal type with crosshead guide.
  - Fig. 21.—Horizontal trunk piston type.
  - Fig. 22.—Vertical type Fig. 23.—Vertical type Fig. 24.—Inclined type
  - with cranksliaft below. with craukshaft ahove. with cranksliaft below.
  - For a vertical engine to continue running easily for a long period, both cranksliaft bearings hâve to be equally loaded ; it should hâve on both sides of the crank flywlieels of equal weight.
  - The inclined type for one-cylinder engines is seldom used. The type, however, lias advantages when it is désirable to hâve two or more cylinders working on to the saine crank. The large ends of the connecting rods are arranged one beside the other, the crank being lengthened in order to accom-modate them. In most cases a connnon lay-shaft can be used. Engines of this type arc used for automobiles, racing boats, and air-ships ; in racing boats there are as many as twelve cylinders mounted in pairs set behind one another (“ Antoinette ” motor).
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  - The type of enginc with two horizontal cylindcrs arranged opposite to each otlier, with connecting rods working on to the saine crank-pin, lias not met with much success in actual practice, bccause in the case of one cylinder the working-stroke occurs when the crank is moving over from left to right, and witli the otlier, when the crank is moving from right to left. In the first case the tlirust is ail on the bottom of the left-hand cylinder, and in the second on the top of the bore of the right-hand cylinder. Owing to this différence the cylinders wear out very rapidly. Figs. 20 to 24 show diagram-matically the types now in use.
  - (c.) Component parts of Paraffin and Petrol Engines.
  - The Engine Frame and Crank Chamber.—In horizontal stationary engines, the engine frame forais the body to whicli ail the other main parts, such as the working cylinder, the crankshaft bearings, the lay-shaft, etc., are fitted. In automobile and other similar engines, it is also made use of as a dust-proof casing to protect the mechanical parts, when it is known as the crank case or chamber.
  - In deciding upon the design of the bed plate or frame, and crank chamber, care must be takon to ensure the pro-
  - Figs. 25 and 26.—Horizontal engine frame, with cylinder liner.
  - vision of a broad bearing on the foundations, in order to prevent twisting and distortion when being bolted down fast. In ail stationary engines, in the best practice, the frame, water-jacket, and crankshaft bearings form one casting, on which are also cast ail the flanges required for the fitting on of ail the other parts. In automobile engines, the crank case and water-jacket are not continued in one casting, and for tliese aluminium bronze is used, an alloy which, notwithstanding its small spécifie gravity, 2'8 to 3, is much stronger tlian cast-iron.
  - Ail well-equipped engine-works should possess a spécial machine-tool for machining the engine frame, in which this part of the engine can be completely finished, without moving it when once it is set up on the machine.
  - The Working Cylinder.—The most important matter in the construction of an engine intended to be both economical in working and durable, is to
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  - makc the working cylinder of the most suitable material, namely, of close-grained, hard grey cast-iron, and the piston of the same material. The bore should be accurately cylindrical, and should show a perfect surface ; there should not be any blow-holes or porous places indicative of a spongy texture of the iron.
  - Since a uniformly close-grained casting can only be obtained when the cylinder is in a simple and regular design, uniform in thickuess as far as is practieable, it has long been customary in the case of stationary engines to
  - cast the cylinder separately and not in one piece with the water-jacket, and apart from the frame or crank case. The cylinder liner is tlien litted tightly inside the water-jacket, and the outside end is covered by a third casting forming the combustion chamber and valve chest. Figs. 25 to 27 show typical engiue frames fitted with cylinder liuers, for horizontal and vertical engines. In a subséquent chapter, when de-scribing automobile engines, their forni of crank chamber will be clearly seen from the illustrations tlien given.
  - The cylinder liner becomes, of course, much hotter than the water-jacket, and provision must be made for the former to expand freely in the jacket, the joint being kept tight by indiarubber packing or a suitable stuffing-box.
  - The combustion chamber, wliich is usually cast in one
  - Fio. 27.-
  - - Vertical engine frame, with cylinder liner.
  - piece with the valve chest, is exposed to the greatest pressures and highest températures. In paraffin and petrol engines, wliich work with compressions up to 5 atrns. (73'5 lbs. per sq. in.), pressures rising as high as 20 to 24 atms. (294 to 353 lbs. per sq. in.) hâve to be taken into account, and the walls of the combustion chamber must be made of suitable strength.
  - In the older stationary engines using liquid fuel, the combustion chamber practically formed part of the walls of the working cylinder, and was of the same diameter ; now, however, the combustion chamber is given a somewhat smaller diameter and greater length, room being thus procured for a more convenient arrangement of the valves, wliile useless passages and spaces are
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- - TIIK WORKING OR THE LATER PARAFFIN AND PETROL ENG1NES. 43
  - doue avvay with. The valve heads are thus inserted in tlie actual vvalls of the combustion chamber, and by this means is procured a larger volume with comparatively small cooling surface. Ignition can take place very rapidly throughout this space ; a small portion of the heat developed is absorbed by the walls, but the greater amount is transformed into work.
  - It is préférable to make the diameter of the combustion chamber equal to its length ; the inlet valve is at the top and the exhaust valve on the under-neath side. After removing the inlet valve cover, the mushroom head of the exhaust valve can easily be taken out and the seating inspected.
  - In vertical engines this arrangement of the valves cannot be used. The side-walls of the combustion chamber in these engines are vertical, and the valves would hâve to work horizontally. Horizontal valves, however, are in ail cases objectionable, especially in motors, as they do not remain tight. In order to obtain a vertical arrangement of the valves, therefore, their location in the top of the combustion chamber is the only one possible ; but this again, even if it be of the same diameter as the cylinder, does not always provide sufficient room for two valves. So long as one lias to deal with slow-running stationary engines, the valves arc comparatively small, and can be placed, if need be, one beside the other. In high-speed automobile engines, the valves must be of comparatively large diameter, and the area of the top is not sufficient to accommodate, conveniently, both valves. In such cases tlie inlet and exhaust valves are usually found in one chamber on one side, or else are placed one on either side of tlie cylinder.
  - In vertical stationary engines, not employing mecbanically operated inlet valves, these valves are occasionally placed in the centre of the cover, wliile the exhaust valves are at the side so that they can be worked direct by a rod, without intermediate links or levers as shown in fig. 27.
  - Up to the middle of the ’nineties tliere were a great many varieties of paraffin and petrol engines so far as outside shape was concerned. The designs hâve, however, approached gradually to uniformity, except in the case of automobile engines where new and spécial forms and arrangements are still occasionally met with, wliich, however, as a rule, do not enjoy a very long life.
  - The Piston.—ISText in importance to the cylinder is the piston of the engine. It is subject to very high températures, and is only partially cooled by the entering charge which cornes in contact with its inner surface. When working, it only partially cornes into contact with the air. Consequently, the end of tlie piston expands much more than the working cylinder, and for this reason, the piston in the first place is turned to a somewhat smaller diameter, so that when heated and expanded it exactly fills the cylinder cross-section.
  - The arrangement of separate crosshead guides beyond the cylinder, by which ail side-thrust is taken up in a manner independent of the cylinder, is now being more and more largely abandoned ; it greatly increases the cost of the engine. The Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz alone are still supplying this type when specially desired. In ail other instances the cylinder and piston hâve not only to remain tight, but also must absorb ail side-thrust. A great
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  - lcugtli or bearing surface for the piston in tbese engines is also of the greatest importance, and the working life of an engine can be gauged beforeliand by the length of the piston. The Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz give their pistons a length equal to 2| times their diameter.
  - The Piston Gudgeon Pin.—As already stated, only a fcw firms now build engines witli separate crosshead guides. Compétition enforces the adoption of
  - Fig. ‘28.—Piston witli movable gudgeon.
  - cheaper designs, and turns the scales in this as in other niatters, notwith-standing the fact that the gudgeon in the trunlc piston is, so far as durability is concerned, the weakest point in these engines. Wear, in this case, takes place very rapidly, because the gudgeon becomes very hot, because it is very inaccessible, and its proper lubrication is very difiicult, and lastly, because space is restricted and it cannot be made really large and strong enough. Figs. 28 and 29 show the different forms of gudgeon pins in trunk pistons.
  - In automobile engines, the pistons are made very short in order to reduce
  - Fig. 29. —Piston witli fixed gudgeon.
  - as much as possible the lieight and weight of the cylinders, and rnuch attention is seldom paid to the design of gudgeon. It consists usually of a simple cylindrical steel pin, the small end of the connecting rod being fitted with a corresponding steel bush. Since, in automobile engines, ail the revolving reciprocating parts inside the crank chamber are splash lubricated, there is less risk of inefficiency of lubrication in these engines than in others. Hever-theless, even in these the gudgeon pin is ahvays the part which wears the quickest.
  - The Piston Rings.—These are also very important parts of an engine. They must act as an elastic wall, and must be able to take up the wear for a
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  - long period ; nevertheless, when tight, the pressure they exert inside the cylinder must not be too great, or they would act as a brake and would greatly increase the internai résistance of the engine.
  - Piston rings are now generally made of cast-iron ; until the early ’eighties they were made of steel, but cast-iron is sufficiently elastic and the coefficient of friction of cast-iron on cast-iron, at the high températures which obtain in engines, is less tlian that of steel on cast-iron.
  - The spring required is obtained in the follovving manner :—The complété ring is given a somewhat largcr diameter than that of the piston ; a piece is then eut out of it, the two ends are brought togetlier, and the ring thus formed is tvxrned afresh, exactly to the cylinder diameter. The completed rings are fitted in place by hand, care boing taken not to bend thern. The
  - Fig. 30.—Piston ring stud of the Gasmotorenfahrik Deutz.
  - Fig. 31.-—Tangycs piston ring stud.
  - Fig. 32. —Piston ring stud of the Vcrdau Motorenfabrik.
  - safest proof that the rings are fitting satisfactorily is obtained on inspection, after working for a time, wlien, if wearing properly, they will be found to be polished evenly over the wliole of their periphery. Wlien isolated polished parts appcar, tins is a sigu that the rings hâve too large a diameter and that they bend unevenly on every in-and-out stroke. llings that are too stiff wear rapidly, break easily, require more lubrication, besides enlarging their grooves. The rings are tight only when there is a certain amount of play between them and the bottom of the grooves in the piston. Cleaning, in the case of the piston, is limited to the removal of thick and burnt luhricating oil from these grooves. If the rings are not prevented from working round, after a few hours’ running, ail the slits would corne into line which would, of course, allow the working gases to escape. Care must therefore be taken to keep them in place so that the slits break joint. Tins is done by means of a stud or feather in the groove.
  - The studs must be most carefully fitted in the bottom of the groove.
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  - Simply screvving in small round studs is not sufficient • such studs, owing to the constant variation in direction of pressure, would become loose, resulting in the cutting of longitudinal grooves in the cylinder bore. It will alvvays be noticed that, in well-built engines, the greatest care lias been given to the question of safely fixing the piston ring studs. The Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz, for instance, rivet in a square stud which takes up the whole width of the groovc (fig. 30). Messrs Tangyes, Birmingham, use a round and slightly conical stud, which is let in deeply and secured by being bent over in the piston (fig. 31). Other builders use a round stud of diameter lai'ger than the width of the groove, but projccting only half-way across the latter, securing in tliis manner a firm hold in the thick part of the piston wall (fig. 32).
  - Valves.—The valves permit of the introduction of the charge and the dischai'ge of the burnt gases ; they must be able to withstand the high pressures and températures of the combustion chamber, and must alvvays be in working order in spite of these unfavourable conditions. The greatest tax is put upon the exhaust valve.
  - The mushroom valve lias been found to be most suitable botli for the in-let and the exhaust. This is shown in fig. 33 ; both the valves are made of medium hard quality steel.
  - Piston valves, double-beat valves, and other types used in steam engines, are not suitable for Fig. 33.—Valve. internai combustion engines ; they may only be
  - used in connection witli the formation of the explosive mixture and for governing ; in places, in fact, wliere they are not directly in contact with the high températures of combustion and witli high pressures. The inlet and exhaust valves are alvvays arranged vertically, never horizontally or inclined ; their spindles or stems should be made as long as possible, and the guide should run close up to the liead of the valve. Spécial care must be given to the design of the operating mechanism, and the slightest side-thrust against the spindle guide must be avoided, especially in the case of the exhaust valve. It must not be overlooked that the valve spindle is exposed to températures at which oil lubrication is impossible. Easy and quick removal of the valve for inspection and regrinding or fitting, is a point to be carefully studied in design.
  - With mechanically operated valves a suffîciently large passage must be provided for the gases to fiovv in and out freely; the fiovv through the opening shown in fig. 33 should hâve a mean velocity of 20 to 30 ms. (65 to 98 ft.) per second. In large engines this velocity should be ratlier larger, and in smaller ones it should be less than the mean. The lift of the valve should be kept as small as possible. The cams for opening the valves should be so shaped as to be suitable for a certain range, eitber increase or decrease, in piston speed, and therefore for the corresponding variations in the velocity of fiovv of the gases through the valve passages. In designing the valve chamber,
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  - sharp bends, corners, narrow passages, and abrupt changes of cross-sections should be avoided.
  - As the products of combustion at higli température liow past the cxhaust valve, non-cooled exhaust valve chambers are only possible on very small engines. The combustion gases are rust-producing, and the exhaust valve spindle after the cylinder has been standing for any considérable length of time, is frequently stuck fast ; a lubricating device must therefore bc provided for the spindle. Oil, however, cannot be used for this, silice it is liable to become carboniscd on account of the high température of the valve ; this would, of course, interfère with the proper working of the valve. Paraffin must therefore be used, for this evaporates completely and possesses, moreover, the property of dissolving the rust and also the coagulated lubricating oil which finds its way from the working cylinder to the exhaust valve guide.
  - In small engines the inlet valve should also be mechanically operated. Wlien self-acting inlet valves are used, the maximum amount of power theoreti-cally possible with the available cylinder volume cannot be developed. The valves also vibrate in working, and cause trouble from noise.
  - The Supply and Mixture of the Fuel.
  - The différence in construction between paraffin oil and petrol or gasolene engines is, as a rulc, not great ; it results from the fact that tlio fuels used for paraffin and oil, in distinction to petrol engines, do not vaporise at the normal air températures, and means must be taken to produce artificially before starting, a température sufficiently great to cause vaporisation, and also to maintain this température ail the time the engine is running. Speak-ing generally, although distillâtes of crude petroleum and of minerai coal, both of high and of low boiling points, are obtained, tliey hâve ail approxi-mately the same liquidity and no very great différence in calorific value, so that the same mcchanical devices may be used in both paraffin and petrol engines. There is no difficulty in building, supposing the necessary heating arrangements to be provided, an engine which can run with ail kinds of fuel. The amount required of any of the various fuels also differs but little.
  - It may be assumed that the petroleum distillate of spécifie gravity 0-72 forms approximately the limit at which natural vaporisation occurs, so as to yield, at the normal température of the air, an inflammable mixture. With the heavier distillâtes, heating devices become necessary. Paraffin engines are now grouped in two classes, namely, those in which the heating is external and those in which it is internai. For external heating, lamps are used, either just at starting and sufficiently long afterwards for the vaporisation température to hâve been reached internally, or kept burning ail the while the engine is working,- in order to beat a certain part specially designed for this purpose.
  - If it is not desired to use a lamp, the engine is started on a light fuel—gasolene, for example, which gradually raises the internai température to the point required, after which paraffin oil is supplied, and the
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  - supply of lighter fuel eut off. The change from one fuel to the other is not noticeable.
  - We therefore hâve to deal with :—
  - 1. The supply and mixture of light fuels.
  - 2. That of heavy fuels—
  - (a.) employing external heating by lamps;
  - (b.) using heating only at starting ;
  - (c.) starting on light fuel until the internai température necessary for the heavier fuels is reached.
  - Carburettors for Light Fuels.
  - In the case of ail light fuels, their property of vaporising at the normal température of the air suffices for the formation of inflammable mixtures. The engines run on these fuels are really true petrol engines, and are ready for starting up practically without préparation. As stated in the chapter dealing with their development, contrivances for producing lighting gas from easily volatiliscd hydi'ocarbons were brought out in the late ’sixties-, with which gas-engines could easily be run. These air-gas-, or gasolene-gas-making devices were filled with a large quantity of petrol or some other suitable fuel, air being then driven through tliem. The air became saturated with the fuel vapours, and formed a combustible gas which could be supplied to any distance, through pipes, in a similar way to coal gas. A similar apparatus, which could hardly be of greater simplicity of construction, was in use up to about the year 1900 for supplying the fuel and mixture in almost ail petrol engines. The only disadvantage of this apparatus, or carburettor, was that the whole of the fuel to the very last portion could not be utilised.
  - The distillation of crude petroleum can only be carried out in such a way that ail components of a given group of distillâtes shall hâve approximately the same spécifie gravity ; there is always, as the tcrm “group” implies, a number of substances whose boiling points lie between certain limits. With light fuels, produced by fractional distillation, and which cannot but contain several components of different degrees of volatility, there will always be a certain portion of the fuel, namoly, that containing the lighter and more easily volatiliscd components, which evaporates iirst, leaving behind in the carburettor a much smaller quantity of residue that cannot be evaporated at the air températures. The quantity of this residue varies according to the time of yoar and the température of the air, and is greater in cold weather. Ey providing the carburettor with some kind of heating System, it has been found possible to utilise the greater part of the residue also; this plan, however, is seldom adopted, and in most cases the residue is drained off and thrown away.
  - As also stated in the chapter on the development of petrol motors, it was not long beforc a System of supplying fuel was devised, based on a different
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  - principle to that of the carburettor. In the Wittig & ïïees engines, and in those by Korting, which were bronght out in the early ’eighties, the charge required for each individual stroke was for the first time obtained from the liquid fuel direct, without the addition of air, in the form of a fine jet or mist. At the same instant, the very strong current of air was brought into contact with the fuel, evaporating it to some extent and atomising and dispersing the greater part of it. As a spray, the fuel is in a form extremely well suited for use in internai combustion engines. In this form it is carried by the current of air right into the combustion chamber, where it cornes in contact with the heated walls and is completely transformed into vapour.
  - A very suitable arrangement is that used in the Korting oil engine in which the air does not encounter a fine jet, but a mist of fuel. In both Systems it is considered advisable to place the spraying device as close to the combustion chamber as possible ; the shallow petrol tank was also mounted quite near by, placed not on a higher, but, in fact, on a rather lower level than that of the petrol outlet. When arranged in this way the vacuum created by the suction-stroke is quite sufficient to raise the fuel, and the différence in level of the fuel surface in the shallow tank was so small, that a variation in the composition of the mixture was only noticeable after standing still for long periods, and the necessary adjustment could easily be made by hand.
  - The Korting engines of this type, which are still built, run in summer and winter with the greatest regularity ; heating devices were not applied to them, and they would be suitable for automobiles and motor-boats, if one could become reconciled to providing each cylinder with its own spraying apparatus, placing it in some suitable position quite close to the inlet valve.
  - At the présent time, this System of spraying is only used on stationary engines. In automobile and motor-boat engines, where vibrations of the petrol tank hâve to be taken into account, and which hâve as a rule a larger number of cylinders, other plans hâve been adopted by the builders. But in these engines, also, the fuel is taken from the general supply in the form of one or more jets or a mist ; and, moreover, care is taken that the fuel should always be under the same pressure, this end being obtained by the use of a float valve which is uninfluenced by the vibrations and oscillations. On account of one apparatus having to sulïice for several cylinders, a modification is introduced and the fuel is supplied in the form of spray direct into the combustion chamber. The several mcthods by means of which an attempt is made to completely vaporise the spray of fuel and to mix with it the exact proportion of air at the correct instant, involve the supply of previously heated air, au increase or decrease of the elfect of suction on the surface of the fuel, and the delivery of additional air.
  - Automobile engines, owing to rapid variations of load, require a very sensitive hand-regulating device, by means of which the quality of the mixture may be varied. This device, by combining a number of purposes, embraces spécial features, and lias received the narne of vaporiser or
  - 4
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  - carburettor. Almost ail the large automobile bailders now hâve their own types of vaporisers.
  - In the following illustrations are shown a number of atomising and mixture-forming apparatus for use with the volatile fuels now used for stationary and automobile engines.
  - Fig. 34.—Korting’s carburettor for stationary engines.
  - a, Fuel supply pipe ; d, Needle cut-off valve ; c, Film-forming arrangement ; d, Air cut-off ])iston valve ; c, Wings connecting valves / and d ; /, Suction-valve for raising tlie valve b by the action of the suction of the working piston ; g, Suction passage in connection with upper side of valve/; h, Stop for valve b.
  - Fig. 35.—Bànki carburettor.
  - The air for spraying, whicli enters through the niovable tube H, flows out somewhat Itelow the surface of the liquid fuel and reduces the latter to spray. The air for combustion, which arrives at the same instant at D, carries the spray inside the engine. E, Fuel inlet ; II, Adjustahle tube for the spraying air; C, Heating chamber; K, Entrance of exliaust gases ; L, Outlet for the exliaust gases ; D, Regulator valve for the air for combustion.
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  - F10. 38.
  - Figs. 36 to 38.—Carburettor of the Daimler Motorei î - G csell schaft, Untertürkheim.
  - The quantity of mixture former! varies automati-cally with the demand marie for power, or wit.h the quantity of arlditional air. The proportions of air and fuel always romain the sarac. The opening of the nozzle can be regulated. The carburettor is hot-water jacketed.
  - K, Ohamber jacket ; Z, Air flap-valvc—wliieli, according to requirements, allows the passage of a larger or a smaller amount of air ; A, Spindle of valve Z; B, Fuel nozzle with variable opening ; N, Needle-valve for regulating the opening of the nozzle B ; Dj D2, Side covers for the valve Z ; Bl, Laminated spring for the automatie closing of the valve Z ; II, Clamp for the spring Bl ; E, Adjustable back stop for the valve ; Sch, Float chamber ; Ka and U, Device for regulating and locking the needle N ; S, Fuel strainer ; St, and St2, Outletand inlet for the hot water ; Dr, Revolving tube-valve through whicli the compléter! mixture is drawn olf; An, Stop for the revolving valve Dr; E2 and E.„ Screws for limiting the movement of the revolving valve ; D;i, Insjiection cover for the revolving valve.
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Fig. 39.—Automatic carburettor for automobiles of the Adler-Fahrradrverke, formerly Heinricb Kleycr, Frankfort-on-Main.
  - The formation of the mixture is altered automatically, according to the demand made for power, by varying the addition of air. The proportions of the mixture are altered by rcgulating the current of additional air, by means of an automatic governor. The opening of the fuel nozzle is adjastable. Tlie air for combustion may be heated if désirable by the exhaust gases.
  - A, Blow-off cock for the removal of impurities in the fuel ; B, Fuel supply pipe ; R, Strainer ; V, Needle-valve for the fuel fced ; J, Float ; S, Tubular guide for the float ; M, Nut working along the spindle V ; D, Feathers for prcventing the spindle V from revolving ; T, Dippcr for pressing tlie float down on starting the engines ; H, Constricted pipe for the air for carrying off the spray ; Z, Annulai1 opening through which the additional air enters ; F, Valve for additional air, ivith openings in the bottom ; E, Adjustable valve seating for F ; K, Lever for the valve F operated by automatic governor ; G, Regulator valve (throttle) for the completed mixture ; L, Lever for the valve G, rcgulated by liand ; G, Adjustable clamp for the valve F.
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- - THE WORKING OF THE LATER PARAFFIN AND PETROL ENGINES. 53
  - Explosive
  - Mixture
  - \A/ r
  - 'Jnlet
  - Fetroi
  - Heabing
  - Device
  - Fig. 40. — Longuemare carbur-ettor for stationary and automobile engines.
  - A, Float cliamber ; B, Float ; E. Dipper for operating tlie float by liand, on starting the engine ; G G, Float levers ; H, Fuel-collecting tube ; I, Fuel - supply pipe ; J, Drain ; K, Air cliamber ; L, Spray-ing plug ; M, Mixture passage ; O, Baille plate ; P, Additional air passage ; li, Throttle for the com-pleted mixture ; S, Lever of the throttle ; X, Additional air inlet ; Y, Mixture outlet.
  - Fig. 41.—Carburettor by A. Clément, Levallois-Perret, Paris (“Bayard ’ Automobiles).
  - The composition of the mixture varies, and follows automatically the demand madc for power, by régulation of the supply of additional air. The carburettor is liot-water jacketed.
  - 1, Float ; 2, Needle-valve for cutting ofl' the fuel supply ; 3, Fuel nozzle ; 4, Air nozzle ; 5, Hot-water jacket ; 6, Hot-water outlet ; 7, Mixture tlirottle-valvc ; S and 9, Valves for additional air, whicli are opened to a greater or less extent by suction ; 10, Air strainer ; 11, Springs controlling the valves 8 and 9 ; 12, Annulai- passage for additional air ; 13, Lever for liand régulation ; 14, Lever for automatie stoppiug on throwing out the clutch.
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- - 54
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Figs. 42 and 43.— Longuemare carburettor : latcst type for automobiles.
  - A, Float chamber ; B, Float ; E, Dipper ; G G, Float levers ; H, Fuel-collecting chamber ; I, Fuel-supply pipe ; J, Drain; L, Atomiser; a, b, c, Cylindrical valve for additional air connected to the throttle-valve p ; d, g, /, Lever connection for tlirottle-valve and additional air valve ; X, Air inlet ; Y, Mixture outlet.
  - /
  - 16 8 7
  - Fig. 44.—Carburettor for tlie Neckarsulmer Fahrradwerke A.-G. motor cycle.
  - Variations in tlie mixture are obtained by liand. Additional air, wlien re-quired, is supplied quite close to the engine. Ileat-ing is eilected by the exhaust gases as required.
  - 1, Fuel supply pipe.
  - 2, Regulating needle
  - valve.
  - 3, Float.
  - 4, Float levers.
  - 7, Screw drain-plug.
  - 8, Fil ter.
  - 10, Fuel nozzle.
  - 11, Mixture nozzle.
  - 12, Spray cône or atom-
  - iser.
  - 13 and 14, Screw connection for the mixture pipe to the engine. J 5, Exhaust gas inlet.
  - 17 and 18, Revolving valve for air régulation.
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- - * \
  - •^THE WORKING OF THE LATER PARAFFIN AND PETROL ENGIN ES. 55
  - Carburettors for Heavy Fuels.
  - In order to arrive at the correct method of supply, vaporisation, and mixture formation, when using the heavier petroleum distillâtes, it is necessary to bear in mind some of the properties of these distillâtes already alluded to in the second chapter. It is perhaps most important of ail to consider the Chemical décomposition of paraffin vapours, vvhich commences at about 270° C. (518° Fahr.), at the température, tlierefore, required to trans-form into vapour the least volatile parts of lamp oil. The évaporation of oil and the Chemical décomposition of the vapours, proceed simultaneously up to a température of about 518° Fahr. The higher the température rises, the more the Chemical décomposition—formation of oil gas—preponderates, and in the end one has to deal with a fuel which lias a calorific value different from that of paraffin vapour proper, which also requires different mixture proportions and possesses different properties of combustion, it is not advisable, for these reasons, to exceed by much the evaporating température of 518° Fahr., and it is quite as detrimental to let the température fall much below that point, for, in the latter case, ail the component parts of paraffin are not converted into vapour.
  - Care must also be talcen that the paraffin, when converted to vapour and mixed with air, be protected against cooling by coming in contact with surfaces lower in température than 270° (518° Fahr.); for by so cooling, a part of the paraffin runs the risk of beiug reconverted to the liquid state, thus being removed from the mixture and escaping combustion.
  - These considérations show that the conditions to be fulfilled by the apparatus for the supply of the required mixture, are not easily met ; in fact, an altogether satisfactory solution of the problem has not yet been found. The great advantage possessed by the Diesel engine, in which the fuel for combustion enters directly in the form of spray, and in which the conversion to vapour does not take place, is a very évident one.
  - Notwithstanding, vaporising in paraffin motors must not be considered an unsolvable problem. The practical advantages which the engines working with vaporisers or carburettors hâve over the Diesel engine, are so great that it is well wortli while to work further at the problem.
  - From our remarks on the behaviour, as regards évaporation and vaporisation, of the volatile and heavy fuels, it may be gathered that the very generally used name of “ carburettor ” for the apparatus which insures the supply and formation of the mixture in petrol and oil engines, does not meet the case. Vaporisation and carburetting are processes which, in this instance, produce very different results. Vaporisation is tlie pure physical action by which a liquid is converted to a vapour. Carburetting is the Chemical process by which a body is transformed into another body having different properties. The name carburettor implies an action which does not take place in the apparatus at ail : no Chemical transformation of the liquid fuel is required nor the production of any gas, but only the formation
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- - 56
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - of vapour. It would therefore hâve been more correct to style this appliance a “mixture-forming apparatus” botli for oil and petrol motors, and not a “ carburettor.”
  - The following illustrations of mixture-forming apparatus show how far the conditions for a correct vaporisation and formation of mixture, and its maintenance at a uniform quality, hâve been met.
  - Fig. 45 illustrâtes the Capitaine vaporiser as it has been manufactured for many years by the Maschinenbau-Âktiengesellschaft, formerly Ph. Swiderski, Leipzig. In this, the température of the vaporising chamber is lcept up by means of a constantly burning lamp.
  - Fio. 45.—The Capitaine carburettor for fuel liaving a liigli boiling-point.
  - d, Oil inlet from oil ]iump ; e', Air inlet for spraying; c, S]>ray-valve ; F, Vaporising chamber for spray and ignition space ; c, Heating ribs ; /, Outlot for oil vapour ; E, Air for mixture inlet ; G, Heating lamp.
  - Among the mixture-forming apparatus in which heating by lumps is resorted to at starting, may be classed ail those which are adapted to the engines built on the Iiornsby System ; a device of this kind is illustrated in fig. 16 in the third chapter.
  - In the case of the Bânki engine, built by Ganz & Co., Budapest, the carburettor is also heated by a lamp only when starting. This engine works at very higli compressions—up to 16 atms. (235 lbs. per sq. in.) —and, in order to prevent prématuré ignition, water-spray is introduced with the fuel. The devices for fuel- and water-spraying are placed one behind the other in the air inlet passage, so tliat a mixture of air, fuel-spray,
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- - TIIE WOIIKING OF THE DATER PARAFF1N AND PETROL ENGINES. 57
  - î î t
  - t
  - Figs. 46 and 47.—The Banki carburettor for oil and petrol engines.
  - a, Fuel sprayer ; b, Water sprayer ; c, Throttle valve in tlie air inlet ; d, Passage l'or exliaust gas ; e, Outlet valve seating ; G, Inlet valve cliamber ; G' Air inlet ; H, Air heating cliamber ; II', Jacket through whicli pass exliaust gases ; I, Ignition ; i, Ignition tube ; u, Float cliamber ; p, Float ; v, Fuel inlet ; m, Fuel level pipe ; n t, Feed regu-lator, as in iig. 35.
  - Fig. 48.—Longuemare carburettor for lieavy fuel.
  - A, Float cliamber ; 14, Float ; F, Needle valve ; G, Float lever ; I, Fuel inlet ; J, Drain screw cap ; PD, Fuel regulating valve; M', Fuel outlet ; L, Spraying cône or atomiser ; X, Inlet for air lieated by exliaust gases ; K, Passage for tlie air needed for spraying ; P P, Passage for ad-ditional air ; N O Q li S, Regulating device for air for spraying and additional air ; dd, Heating bodies ; ec, Heating passages through whicli flow tlie exliaust gases ; U, Inlet exliaust gases; ce, Outlets for con-densed water lVom exliaust gases.
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- - 58
  - OÏL MOTORS.
  - and water-spray is drawn in, and in order that uniform quantities of feed of both fuel and water may be xnaintained, the supply of both is governed by float valves. The air is highly heated by the exhaust gases. Tube ignition is resorted to, the tube being heated, on starting only, by a lamp. The spaee inside the tube is made large enough for sufficient mixture to be burnt iuside it to keep it at ignition température.
  - Most of the oil engines, and also most of the alcohol and “ ergin ” engines, are now provided with vaporisers which, at starting, do not require to be previously heated by a lamp, starting-up being accomplished by using, at first, an easily volatile fuel, until the inner surfaces of the valve chest and combustion ohamber hâve reached the required température for volatilising tlie fuel liaving the higher boiling-point. Fig. 48 shows a vaporiser of this type as built by Longuemare Frères, Paris.
  - Fuel Puinps.
  - From the types of carburettors illustrated, it may be seen that with volatile fuels the required quantities are drawn in and sprayed solely by the
  - Fig. 49.—Oil pump of the Swidcrski oil engine.
  - 14, Distribution valve for the oil (substitute for tlie valve) ; 18, Filling plug for glycérine. (Glycérine being a dense liquid, in contact with the piston insures greater tightness of the glands, etc., than is possible with oil) ; 21, Pumpplunger ; 24, Stulf-ing box.
  - action of the vacuum on the suction-stroke. The proportions of fuel and air are varied automatically or by liand, and beat is supplied to the apparatus according to the work required or according to the weather for the time being. In the case of fuels liaving the higher boiling-points, this method is not always followed, partly because in several Systems—as in the Diesel engine, for example—the fuel is not supplied during the suction period; partly also because, on account of its rapid delivery inside the combustion chamber, it is not necessary to extend the period of admission over the whole of the suction-stroke. In sucli cases, the vacuum due to the suction of the working piston cannot be used as a motive power, and puinps must be resorted to instead, driven by suitable gear. According to the method followed for governing the engines, one lias to discriminate among fuel supply pumps, between those which supply always exactly the sanie quantity of fuel when the engine is developing its full power and which stop working for a time when there is a réduction in the demand for power, and those in which the fuel supply follows constantly the variations in the load.
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- - THE WOK K ING OK TUE LATER PAllAFKIN AN1) RETKOL ENGINES. 59
  - Fig. 50.—Tlie Grob & Co. valveless oil pump.
  - À, Pump pluuger ; R, Collecting cliamber for oil supply ; K, Oil passage in piston ; V, Non-retum valve.
  - Figs. 51 and 52.—Diesel engine fuel pump.
  - a, Pump plunger ; b, Fuel-supply pipe ; c, Float ; d, Fuel-collecting cliamber ; e, Suetion valve ; /, Delivery valve ; g, Rod connecting tlie suetion valve gear witli tlie governor ; h k, Working lever of tlie suetion valve ; i, Eccentric fulcrum pin ; Im, Working rod for tlie suetion valve.
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- - 60
  - OlL MOTORS.
  - Figs. 49 and 50 illustrate pumps of the former type. Fig. 49 shows the pattern adopted by the Maschinenbau-Aktiengesellschaft, formevly Ph. Swiderski. Fig. 50 is that used by the Motorenfabrik Grob & Co. Figs. 51 and 52 show the Diesel engine fuel pump.
  - A very necessary accessory for ail kinds of carburettors is the
  - Fuel Filter.
  - The fuel which is supplied through the minute apertures of spraying nozzles, atomisers, and pumps, must be absolutely free from foreign bodies,
  - Fig. 53.—The Korting wire gauze filter.
  - G, Tube formed of sevoral layers of wire gauze ; B, Cover ; E, Fuel en-trance.
  - Fig. 54.—The Louguemare wire gauze ülter.
  - A, Filter chamber ; 11, Screw cap to be rcmoved for cleaning ülter; C, Fuel entraiiee ; D, Fuel out-let ; F, Baso of the ülter cylindcr ; G, Wire gauze cylinder ; II, Ilolding-down spring for the wire gauze ; I, Draiu-cock.
  - Fig. 55.—The Louguemare filter for automobiles.
  - A, Filter chamber ; B, Filteriug substance (sait or pumice-stone) ; C D E, Fuel inlet ; F, Fuel outlet ; G, Drain - cock ; H, Air pet-cock.
  - otherwise stoppages are sure to occur, and every liquid fuel engine must, thercfore, be provided with a filter. The most simple device consists of a thick felt clotli stretched over a wire gauze sieve in the oil tank.
  - Wire gauze filters of different patterns, in which the filter surface can be rapidly cleaned, are sliown in figs. 53 to 55.
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- - THE WORKING OF THE LATER PARAFFIN AND PETROL ENGIN ES. 61
  - Heating Lamps for Oil and Petrol Engines.
  - The lamps for heating tlie carburettors and ignition tubes bave never received very much attention from engine builders. Even to-day they require a considérable amount of attention on the part of the drivers, and it cannot be said that they are free from danger. They are certainly a constant source of danger in petrol engines, but with these they are now seldom used. Almost ail petrol, benzol, and alcohol engines are provided with electric. ignition, and it is only in oil engines working with vaporisers that heating lamps are to be found in any numbers. When the use of volatile fuels for starting is completely excluded, as is absolutely the case on boats and ships, the use of the lamps is the only available method for heating up.1
  - A number of builders assert that ignition by means of a tube kept at a constant température is the only correct process of ignition for oil engines, and that electric ignition has not proved to be suitable for these engines.2 In any case, it is necessary for us to include heating lamps among the apparatus we are considering. Ail pretensions to art, with which the manufacture of these lamps was once attended, hâve long been abandoned, and the type of lamp now used acts on the principle of the well-known and simple petrol soldering lamps. In both these lamps the fuel is transformed into vapour, and is driven under pressure through a small opening, drawing at the same time with it, as in a Bunsen burner, a current of air with which the fuel mixes, producing a hot flame. The pressure under which the vapour is forced out must be sufficiently high, not only to enable the jet to draw sufficient air with it, but also and for a certain distance to travel faster than it burns. The mixture with the air occurs within this distance ; the shorter this distance is, the less the quantity of air mixed with the fuel ; and the greater it is, the more air is contained in the mixture. The burner opening régulâtes also the amount of pressure in the lamp-liolder, upon which dépends the proportion of fuel and air for obtaining complété combustion and the highest températures.
  - With volatile petrol the necessary pressure can easily be obtained by the external heating of the burner tube and lamp-holder. It is not so easily obtained when using oil, and in this case, generally, the fuel is not lieated in the holder, the required pressure being produced by a small air-pump; the vaporising of the fuel takes place only in the burner tube. The Daimler Motorengesellschaft obtain the required pressure for the fuel supply by making use of part of the exhaust gases ; they do not use an air-pump driven by the engine. The pressure of the gases exhausting from the engine being too high for the purpose, a pressure-reducing valve is inserted, as shown in
  - 1 Messrs Korting liavc patented a heating deviee by means of an electric current,
  - 2 In the expérience of the author this is only so in the case of engines working with incomplète carburetting, in which, therefore, much deposit is formed in the combustion chamber and valve eliests. In boat engines the damp, saline atmosphère, it is true, causes trouble with the wire insulation of electric ignition.
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - I
  - lUHHIIIIUM.
  - Mnimili)»'
  - Figs. 56 and 57.—Pressure-producing devices for heating lamps, uscd by tlie Daimler-Motorengesellschaft.
  - The required ] ires sure for the fuel in tlie lamp-holder is produccd by the action of tbe exliaust gases.
  - 1, Reducing-valve and safety-valve litting ; 3, Reducing-valve ; 4, Safety-valve ; c, Inlet for exliaust gases, wliicli lift the valve 3 and are led through tlie tube / to tlie laniji-liolder ; n, Tlmmb-screw for regulating tbe safety-valve spring to vary tbe jiressure of tlie gases flowing to tlie lamp-holder; <1, Blow-off eock for dirt, etc., carried over witli tbe exliaust gases.
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- - THE WORKING OF THE LATER PARAFFIN AND PETROL ENGINES. 63
  - figs. 56 and 57 ; by means of this valve, only so much of the exhaust can reach the fuel supply tank as is necessary for working the lamp.
  - The formation of explosive mixtures in the lamp-holder must he guarded against, and when petrol lamps are used, no air must be allowed over the surface of the liquid fuel ; when using oil and an air-pump, no oil vapours should be allowed to form over the oil surface. With petrol lamps, a short burner tube is used, so that sufficient beat may be trânsmitted to the holder ;
  - Figs. 58 to 60.—The Capitaine oil-lieating lamp.
  - 36, Shut-off cock for the oil su])])ly ; 37, Spriug for cock-plug ; 38, Cleaning passage ; 40, Nozzle for the oil vapours ; 41, Fitting provided with radiating ribs whicli conveys hack tlie beat for evapor-ating the oil.
  - while with oil lamps, the beat thus trânsmitted must be kcpt down as low as possible and applied to the burner tube only.
  - The principle on which the heating lamps act, indicates the direction in which they may be expected to give rise to dangerous risks or trouble. In the first place, it should be remembered that évaporation does not cease immediately the flame is put out either purposely or by accident, and that a mixture continues to issue from the lamp uselessly for a lengtli of time dépendent upon the beat of the burner tube. When the engine room is of small size and its atmosphère possibly hot, as would frequently bc the case in boats, an explosion could easily occur if the lamps werc lighted again a short time after they had coased burning. Expérience tends to show that such explosions can be very dangerous both to the men and the craft.
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- - 64
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - lt may also happen that the burner head becomes, after a time, wasted away from the action of the combustion gases of the flame and the high températures. The device may thus become leaky, and a large amount of
  - liquid fuel ma y be spray ed out ; this may become ignited and, fall-ing on wooden floors, lcad to fires. In order to start the lamps, the burner tube must be heated by means of a small alcohol-lamp, or by burning a small quantity of alcohol which is poured into a cup provided on the heating lamp. The oil on entering the burner is gradually vaporised; the vapour issues from the small port under a certain pressure, becomes ignited, giving at fîrst a quiet, clear flame. The burner tube then gradually becomes botter; the pressure and the amount of vapour increase. The vapour escapes at a greater velocity, and the tip of the flame gets farther and farther away from the nozzle. More air is d ra wn in under these conditions, combustion is rcndered more complété, until a constant burning and non-lumin-ous flame of high température is produced. Constant and régulai- burning is obtained in the
  - „ i*i i* i following way:—As the vapour
  - Fig. 61.—Swedish oïl-heating lamp. ° J r
  - formed cannot escape from the
  - 1. 0il tank ; 2> Rising-tubo for the oil and smaq 0pening as rapidly as it
  - wiclc ; 3, Opening for filling the tank : 4, Screw . i i 4.1 „ _ • i
  - „ ’ ’ 1 " . 0 ,,.. _ is produced, the pressure mside
  - for regulatmg the air pressure over the ou ; 5, 1 1
  - Air pump ; 6, Cup for the heating fuel for start- the burner tube mereases, and
  - ing the lamp ; 7, B racket for the flame tube ; 8, this reacts and drives the oil
  - Flame tube ; 9, lient pipe for transmitting the |>ack to the tank ; the liquid
  - beat to the liquid oil ; 10. Outflow for the oil . ,, , ... , e
  - ^ fuel, therefore, withdraws from
  - the hot portion of the burner, and
  - the rate of formation of vapour decreases. Then the pressure in the
  - tank drives the liquid fuel up agaiti, and rapid évaporation again takes
  - place. But such an action would resuit in a violent fluctuation of the
  - liquid fuel, and would not producc a steady flame. Steadiness is secui-ed
  - by inserting at that part of the burner near which the oil is transformed
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- - THE WORK ING O F THE LATER PA11AFFIN AND PETROL ENGIN ES. 65
  - into vapour, a résistance to the flow in thc shape of a wick or of a sériés of fine wires tied together.
  - Figs. 58 to 61 slxow several oil-heating lamps commonly used.
  - Speed Grovernors.
  - Reconrse is had to the following methods for regulating the speed of oil and petrol engines :—
  - 1. lîy the “hit and miss” method in whicli one or more explosions are
  - eut ont (“ cut-out ” régulation).
  - 2. By varying the quantity of the charge (“ admission ” or quantitative
  - régulation).
  - 3. By varying the composition of the mixture (“ mixture ” or qualitative
  - régulation).
  - 4. By retarding ignition.
  - So long as it was deemed inadvisahle to exceed a compression of 3 atms. (44 lbs. per sq. in.) in gas engines, up to, therefore, the middle of the ’eighties it was an accepted rule that speed governing should be obtained by the “hit and miss” method, i.e. by cutting out one or more explosions, and this practice was followed in ail installations where economical working was the chief considération, and regularity of running of secondary importance. Governing hy varying the quantity of thc charge or the proportion of the mixture was in force where great regularity in the running was the principal factor. But wlien, in course of time, compression in gas engines increased three-fold, this rule lield no longer. High compression renders a mixture which is poor in gas more highly inflammable, and causes more rapid combustion, so that the régulation of power for light loads obtained by decreasing the porcentage of gas in the mixture, results in quitc as economical working as does the older “hit and miss” method of governing. Regularity in running and economical working are tlius secured simultaneously.
  - This improvement in internai combustion engines bas been applied as far as was practicable, to botli petrol and oil engines ; in the case of these engines, however, compression cannot be increased so readily and in the sanie degree as witli gas engines, but it is now carried to the highest possible limit. In oil engines, a larger amount of water-spray is added to the mixture, and the possible limit of compression is in. this manner increased considerably. In petrol engines and, as a rule, in automobile engines, governing by cutting off the charge has been altogether given up, and the practice of governing by varying the quantity of the charge or the compression of the mixture, com-bined with the retardation of ignition, is now almost exclusively adopted. Compression in petrol engines can be carried up to 5'5 atms. (SO'S lbs. per sq. in.) without the use of water-spray, provided the water cooling is entirely satisfactory.
  - 5
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- - 66
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - The following are tlie different metliods of carrying out governing :—
  - (a.) By cutting out and missing an explosion.
  - 1. By cutting off the fuel supply, but continuing to draw in air and
  - compressing it. The best results that hâve been obtained with this System when running light were ton révolutions for one working-stroke.
  - 2. By omitting the supply of fuel and air, and stopping compression.
  - Obtained by keeping the exhaust valve opcn so that no new charge but the products of combustion of the preceding charge, are drawn back into the cylinder until a fresh working-stroke is required.
  - 3. By keeping the exhaust valve closed. In tliis case also, part of the
  - products of combustion are not exhausted into the atmosphère, but are worked about in the cylinder until a fresh increase of power is required. This metliod is not often employed now.
  - (b.) Governing by varying the quantity of the charge (“admission” or “ quantitative régulation ”) is accomplished as follows :—
  - 1. By restricting or enlarging the inlet passage by means of a throttle or
  - dise valve.
  - 2. By varying the lift of the inlet valve or the time during which the
  - lift takes place.
  - 3. By accelerating or retarding the closing of the exhaust valve in com-
  - bination with an automatic inlet valve.
  - 4. By forcing back a part of the charge into the inlet valve chamber.
  - “ Admission ” governing results, when suffîciently high compression is resorted to, in regular running and satisfactory fuel consumption for small loads. This method gives regular ignition for ail woi'king, down to light loads.
  - («.) Governing by varying the composition of the mixture (“mixture” or “ qualitative régulation ”) can be effected—
  - 1. By a throttle valve or a dise valve in the fuel vapour pipe, close to
  - the inlet valve.
  - 2. By altcring the lift of the fuel valve or the travel of the fuel pump.
  - This method is often adopted for automobile engines and is the most economical, but, with lovv compression at small loads, it leads to inefficient utilisation of the fuel ; regularity of ignition, when running light, is also uusatisfactory.
  - 3. By varying the quantity of air drawn in by means of automatic or
  - hand-operated devices—the fiap valve, for instance, as in the case of the Daimler Motorengesellschaft’s carburettor.
  - 4. By graduating the quantity of air drawn in for spraying and the
  - additional supply, as in the case of the carburettors made by the . Adler-Fahrradwerke and by Clément.
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- - THE WORKING OF THE LATER PARAFFIN AND PETROL ENGTNES. 67
  - (d.) Governing by retarding ignition can only lie adopted when electric ignition is employed—
  - 1. With sparking plug high-tension ignition, by turning the contact ring
  - on the lay-shaft.
  - 2. With low-tcnsion ignition, by retarding the breaking of the contact and
  - simultaneously rotating the armature or the shield. More details will be given on this point when describing the methods of ignition.
  - Retardation of ignition on the second plan requires complicated and expensive devices, but this method is now being more and more widely adopted, cspccially for large automobile machines, wiiore it is commonly known as the low-tcnsion magnéto System; it has been used for a long time for stationary engines, and every endeavour is being made to simplify it.
  - F rom the above énumération it will be seen that tliere are plenty of
  - Fig. 62.—Tlie Fried. Krupp, Grusomveike, inertia governor.
  - a, Tiston rod of the fuel pump ; b, Fuel pump striking lever ; c, Cams on the lay-shaft, for operating the lever ; d c, Lever operating the striking lever ; /, Spring for varying the speed while the engine is running ; h, Inclined guiding surface on whicli tlie striking-lever rests and hy which it is raised when the speed is too great, when it misses the pump rod ; g, Movahle pendulum weight, hy which the rupid raising of the lever is facilitated.
  - methods of governing. The attendantes work would, however, be much casier if there were greater uniformity in the manner of regulating the running of internai combustion engines.
  - For the “ hit and miss ” method of governing, in which valves hâve to be stopped working or held open, inertia governors are the most suitable, or else the swinging weight governor, as tliese corne into play at the proper instant.
  - In governing by varying the quantity or the composition of the mixture, in which System throttling devices hâve to be kept in a certain position, the well-known centrifugal governors are, alone, found to give good results. With these, however, it is necessary to ensure that their action shall exactly correspond to the behaviour of the engine, and that they do not lnint, i e. fly from one extreme to the other. Such defective devices could not bear the name of “ governors,” and would only be a hindrancc to the running of an engine.
  - The use of a centrifugal governor is only possible if a small différence in the number of révolutions between speed of running under full load and light —the coefficient of fluctuation of speed—is permissible. But the flywheel
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  - OIL MOTOlîS.
  - Exhaust Va h,
  - Korting’s llywheel governor.
  - Revolving weiglit which, wlien the speed is too great, cornes contact witli the roi 1er ol' crank lover b c ; i k, Small stcel plates interlock wlien the crank lever is forced down by the action
  - of the weiglit n, and which liold down the lever d e ; c d, Working lever for the cxliaust-valve operated by the dotted cani ; h, Adjust-able spring for drawing back the weiglit ; f <j, De-vice for varying the tension of the spring, bv which means variation of the number of révolutions is obtainod.
  - Fin. 64.—Centrifugal governor of the Daimler-
  - M otorengesel 1 sch aft.
  - n a, Revolving weights witli crank-lcver cast on ; b, Ad-j«stable spring ; c, Stop for the revolving weights, fonn ing also a connection betwcen the guide-bars d d, which o]»erate the sliji-ring e ; /, Lever ojierating the mixture throttlc valve or sonie otlier governing device,
  - Fin. 65.—Centrifugal governor of the Adlcr-Falirradwerke.
  - S, Revolving weiglit in four parts ; A, Governor spindlc ; R, Toothed pinion for driving the governor from the lay-shaft ; H, Socket with slij> ring on which the crank lever of the weights acts, and insidc which is litted the spring which tends to drive the weights down-wards. (The remaining references apply to ignition.)
  - M
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  - must be so heavy that the increase of speed produeed by one single working-stroke is not etpiivalent to or greater than tliat corresponding to the sensitive-ness of the regulator. If these conditions are not fulfilled, even the best oonstrncted governor cannot adjust itself, bat will, at eaeli working-stroke, be driven from one extrême to the otlier as soon as the number of révolutions of the engine départs from normal.
  - Governors must always be designed so that the speed may be regulated by hand while the engine is running. With automobile engines hand and automatic governors are generally provided, each being completely inde-pendent of the other, the automatic governor being provided solely in order to prevent racing of the engine.
  - Figs. 62 to 65 illustrate the varions types of inertia and ilywheel governors.
  - Starting Devices.
  - One of the greatest drawbacks in internai combustion engines is their failurc to start automatically, as do steani engines and electric motors. ünly small engines can be started by hand. In slow-speed stationary engines of over 2 h.-p., the effort needed to overcome the compression in the cylinder is so great, that one man is liardly able to start an engine alone, and devices, such as starting valves and compression relieving appliances, are resorted to.
  - 'l'he starting valve takes the form of a relief valve, which can be clamped down when desired, screwed into the cylinder wall a certain distance along the bore ; and it acts in the following manner :—The portion of the charge which is contained in that part of the cylinder, extendiug from the commencement of the stroke to the place wliere the valve is fixed, is allowed to escape through this valve, and only the remaining portion of the charge is compressed. Résistance to turning will be reduced proportionately. When the engine lias reaehed its normal running speed, the starting valve is screwed down tight and the whole charge is compressed in the proper way.
  - For relieving compression a device is provided by which the exhaust valve is also made to act as a relief starting valve. For tins purpose, a second small cam is provided in addition to the exhaust cam. This causes the exhaust valve to lift for a short time at the commencement of the compression pcriod, allowing a portion of the mixture to escape into the atmosphère, the remainder only being compressed, with the resuit that tlie résistance can easily be overcome by hand. The shorter cam is much smaller than the proper exhaust cam, and by sliding thern on the lay-shaft either the exhaust cam alone or both the eams are set into gear.
  - Another device for starting small engines is the starting handle, which is used with automobile and boat engines. These engines liave such small fly-wheels that starting cannot be effected in the manner usual with small-power engines, i.e. by turning by hand, pulling on to the flywheel rim. For these engines a hand-crank is provided, keyed on to an extension of the crank shaft close to the flywheel, which it drives by means of a ratchet or catch.
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  - 01L MOTORS.
  - For starting the cmgi ne. the catch engages so as to turn the fiywheel; as soon as the engine commences to run faster than the crank can foliow, the latter is thrown out of geai' by the baclt of the ratchet teeth, and as it no longer
  - Figs. 6(5 and 66a.—Fischer safety crank.
  - The slauting surfaces ou the catch L of the locking-bar X are so designed that the engine crank-shaft is only engaged wlien the arm is driven in tlie slit with a certain amount of force. Tliis is produced automatically by taking hold of the liandle F. Should jiremature ignition occur, the catch L is thrown out of gear. The liandle thus becomes disengaged from the engine sliaft, and only a sliglit sliock is lelt.
  - B, Catch socket ; D, Crank arm ; K, Catch bar ; F, Crank liandle ; G, Fin connecting liandle with catch-bar ; K, Catch-bar with catch L ; J, Guide for catch; C, Scrcw, iixing catch socket to end of sliaft.
  - revolves, it can be drawn fonvard without danger. In automobiles, the crank is lield out of gear by a spiral spring.
  - The use of the starting-crank is attended by a certain degree of danger, especially in engines which work with non-mechanically operated ignition of the hot-tube type, and also in the case of electric ignition when retardation
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- - THE WORK ING OF THE LATEIÎ PAEAFFIN AND PETEOL ENGINES. 71
  - of the spark lias been overlooked. In either case, ignition may occur pre-maturely and the üywheel be driven backwards ; the crank is not tlirown out of gear, and niay injure the driver. The lightcr the revolving parts of the engine, the more dangerous niay be the blow from the crank, and spécial care nnist be given to tliis detail in high-speed automobile and boat engines. This lias led to the introduction of safety hand-cranks, wliicli are disengaged automatically wlien prématuré ignition occurs on turning the engine. Figs. 66 and 66a illustrate one of these, manufactured by the Fischer Works, Frankfort-on-Main.
  - Cylinder Lubrication.
  - The lubrication of the cylinder and piston is carried out in internai combustion engines under mueli more unfavourable circumstances tlian in steam engines. Not only is the température of the rubbing surfaces in the cylinder much liigher, but the interior of the cylinder is also in communication with the atmosphère during each suction-stroke. As the outside air is laden witli dust, this is carried into the cylinder and adhères to the oil inside, causing a considérable amount of wear to take place.
  - In this respect automobile engines are extremely badly placed, and in spite of the greatest care, the dust of the roads lias a most detrimental effect. There are a numbor of stationary engines whicli draw the air tliey require from engine-rooms charged with dust, the cylinders of whicli are often, in the course of one year, so worn down that tliey hâve to be machined afresli. For this reason, the pistons of internai combustion engines bave to be made much longer than those of steam engines, even wlien crossheads and slidebars are employed.
  - Under favourablc conditions, the cylinder and piston of an internai combustion engine whicli is maintained in good working order, niay be taken to last ten years. Tliis applies to a stationary engine of the best make, wliich runs at a maximum speed of 250 révolutions per minute, and for not more than ten liours a day. The other main parts of the engine last longer. The greater the speed the shorter will be the life of the engine. The cylinder of an automobile engine wliich runs at 800 or 1000 révolutions, and works for ten liours every day under full load, will not last out ten years ; it may be considered as satisfactory if it lasts for two or tliree years. The quality of the lubricating oil and supply of the right quantity, hâve a great inlluencc on the maintenance of the cylinder and piston. There are oils whicli, wheu used in too large a quantity, prove just as harmful as does insufficient lubrication.
  - For ascertaining the suitability of a cylinder oil and the right amount to supply, the following points will be found of value :—
  - 1. On drawing the piston out of the hot cylinder, both the cylinder wall and the sliding surface of the piston must be found to be covered with a regular coating of oil.
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - 2. This eoating of oil should be transparent, showing up the métal
  - surfaces, and should not leave a brovvn or black mark on the finger.
  - 3. Carbonised oil should not form too large deposits in the valve chambers
  - and on the valve heads.
  - 4. A dark-brown thick substance mus b not drip from the cylinder mouth
  - vvliile the engine is running.
  - From the above it follows that the suitability of a cylinder oil can only be ascertained by an actual test with the engine itself. Animal or vegetable oils, which werc formerly exclusively used for the lubrication of engines, décomposé or carbonise at eomparativcly low températures, and are not suitable for the lubrication of internai combustion engines. It vvas only when lubricating minerai oils were obtained from the distillation of crude petroleum, in the early ’seventies, that the right lubricant was discovered for the cylinders of these engines ; and it then becamc possible to run internai combustion engines safely for a long period.
  - Good minerai lubricating oils are pure distillâtes obtained at températures of about 300° C. (572° bahr.). The oils distilled at lower températures liave a lower spécifie gravity than tliose which are distilled at higlier températures ; tliey are therefore classified under light and heavy oils. Oils of different spécifie gravity are used according to the size of the engine, the degree of compression, and the length of the piston. For the most favourable results an endeavour sliould be rnade to obtain a eoating of oil on the cylinder surface, thick enougli to ensure good lubrication, the fresh supply being just sufficient in amount to make up for the portion which evaporates inside the cylinder.
  - The oil vaporised within the cylinder mixes witli the charge, burns with it, and is utilised for power production. When lubrication is care-fully carried ont, the inside of the cylinder remains perfectly clean. This idéal condition lasts only so long as the same quality and quantity of lubricating oil is used, and the engine will suffer if alterations are made in these respects.
  - When the oil is too light, the quantity supplied is not sufficient, it evaporates too rapidly, the cylinder becomes dry at the rear end, and wear quiekly occurs. If the fresh oil is heavier, less of it evaporates, and the eoating in the cylinder becomcs too thick. Oil vapours are produced, as already described in the case of the oil engine workiug with carburettors, ail of which are not completely burnt: soot and oil black are produced, which remain attached to the cylinder walls, and in this way wear is increased. This is generally remedied by decreasing the supply of lubricant until it is noticed that the stream of dark-brown thick substance, which ran out of the cylinder end on account of too liberal lubrication, ceases, and the surfaces gradually resutne a bright metallic hue covered with a eoating of transparent oil, the engine losing none of its power.
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- - TIIE WORK ING ()!' THE LATER PARAFFIN AND PETROL ENGINES. 73
  - It is not to bo expected that d ri vers or owners of engines sliould test tlie quality of every delivery of oil, and ascertain tlie riglit proportion rcquired for lubrication; it bas therefore devolved upon engine-builders to test the oil themselves, and to produce sucli mixtures that their engiues, or rather tlie lubricating devices they use, shall always work accurately when one brand of lubricant is employed. The engine-builders generally supply tested oils at the price quoted by the oil merchant. The spécifie gravity aflords one guide for a superficial sélection. The cylinder oils hâve spécifie gravities between 0’900 and 0'960, whicli are ascertaiued in the most précisé way by using an areometer for spécifie gravities varying from 0-70 to 1. The spécifie gravity can also be ascertaiued by weighing a litre measure filled with oil.
  - The acidity of an oil is ascertained by using litmus paper. Blue litmus paper will turn red in contact with oil containing acid. To test the ebom which flows out of the cylinder for the proportion of iron it contains, it is dissolved in benzine, filtered and repeatedly washed with benzine on the fil ter. The soot and carbon can easily be burnt out of the residue, and there remains beliind only iron or rust powder. The quantity of this residue can easily be ascertained by using an ordinary magnet.
  - Cylinder Lubricating Apparatus.
  - A good cylinder lubricating apparatus sliould automatically begin to supply oil to the engine as soon as it is started, and also should stop automatically when the engine stops running. It should also be possible at ail times to find out what quantity is being suppliée!. Simple oil-drop devices with varying level of oil are unreliable, for the number of oil-drops diminishes considerably when the level of the oil falls ; tliese devices, moreover, supply less when the oil is cold tban when it is warm, and more liquid.
  - In well-built engines, the cylinder lubricating devices take the form of pumps driven off the lay-shaft, which always supply the point to be lubricated with a regular quantity of oil. For long pistons and high degrees of compression, sucli as are now mostly used, pumps which deliver the oil between the surfaces of the cylinder and the pistou are recommended. These hâve also been iutroduced in large automobile engines. By using this method of lubrication under pressure, the point at which the oil is supplied can be placed nearer to the back end of the cylinder; the oil-hole may be arranged just at the furthest point reached by the last ring of the piston on its outward stroke. The oil must be delivered on to the piston when its rings corne opposite the oil-hole. If the oil is supplied to the piston without pressure, the oil-hole must be placed further forward in a position corre-sponding to the front half of the piston on its outward stroke. üthenvise, when the piston becomes less tight, it may be possible for the oil to be driven back to the lubrieator.
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  - OÏL MOTORS.
  - lubricator.
  - Fig. 67.—Lubricator of tlie Gasmotorenlabrik Deutz.
  - i, Rope pulley driven from tlio lay-shal't ; m, Wire by wbich oil is lifted and delivered to the cup.
  - a, Kope pulley driven from tlie lay-shaft ; b, Outlet to tlio oil distri-butor c ; e, Oil cup in wliicli the oil eau be seen collectine ; d, Driving ropes.
  - Fig. 69.—Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz pressure punip.
  - 1 and 2, Pump piston working in and ont by serew threads 3, when lever 10 is given a rocking motion ; 4, Suction valve ; 5, Pressure valve ; 6, Outlet pipe 1er the oil under pressure ; 7, Glass tube iitted witli sait water iu whicli the oil-drops lise on delivery from the pump ; 8, Relief valve preventing the entrance of combustion gases inside the oil pipes ; 9, Boss on the working cylinder to which the lubricating apparatus is lixed ; 10, Lever witli roller driven from the lay-shaft.
  - Fig. 70.—Lubricating pump of Blanke & Rast, Leipzig-Plagwitz.
  - The glass liolder is not under pressure, and can be filled at any time while the engine is running. Tlie supply eau be varied by turning the serew on the connecting liead.
  - Fig. 71.—Blanke & Rast oil distributor for pressure lubrication.
  - Fig. 70.
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- - THE WORK ING OE THE DATER PARA FF IN AND PETROL ENGINES. 75
  - Various types of lubricatiug apparatus are shown in ligs. 67 to 71.
  - The oil from the bcarings and other lubrieated parts is by no means
  - Fig. 72.—Oil clcaning apparatus, witli sait iilters, by lîlanke & Rust,
  - Leipzig-Plagwitz (Gennan patent).
  - The sait lilters i'ree the oil fïom the dirt and water it contains. The water se{)arated is allowed to escape through the eocks ,T, and K.
  - valueless ; it inay be collected, and, after liltration, used again af'resh Fig. 72 illustrâtes a filtering apparatus.
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- - CHARTER V.
  - IGNITION DEVICES FOR OIL AND PETROL ENGINES. GENERAL REMARKS.
  - Thu most distinctive feature of oil and petrol engines is the ignition System, by whicli the beat needed for tbe ignition of the charge is prodnced at the right instant inside the combustion space. The followiug methods of ignition are used : —
  - 1. Burning gases.
  - 2. Hot solid bodies.
  - 3. Electric spark.
  - •I. By high compression of the heated air.
  - The oldest methods of ignition are the electric spark and burning gases. Ignition by burning gases was adopted for gas engines up to the middle of the ’eighties, but was not used either witli oil or witli petrol engines, for in thèse engines the gas required for the fiame was not available.
  - A notable impetus was given to the application of liquid-fuel to engine-driving purposes, wlicn it was found possible to use hot solid bodies for securing ignition, on the introduction by Daimler of automatic hot-tube ignition. But tins method also bas its disadvantages, for it nécessitâtes, in the cases where petrol and similar fuels are em[)loyed, the use of a constant]y burning heating lamp, fed witli a liquid-fuel similar to that supplied to the engiue. The use of these lamps entails risk of lire, and they cannot be said to be, in any way, reliable and safe devices ; they need constant attention, and their use requires expérience.
  - Besides these disadvantages of a practical nature, hot-tube ignition lias a further defect in that the timing of the ignition cannot be controlled. It is possible, it is true, by resorting to suitable mechanical appliances, to retard hot-tube ignition to such an extent that firing occurs after the dead centime is passed ; but there is no means of advancing it, if desired, before the dead centre is reachcd. Tins disadvantage is mostly felt in high-speed automobile engines, in which early combustion is absolutely necessary in order to develop the greatest amount of power. Attention was thercfore~re-directed to the almost forgotten electric ignition, by which firing at any required
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- - IGNITION DEVICES FOU OIE AND PETPOL ENGINES.
  - 77
  - instant and at any desired part of the combustion chamber was easily possible. With electric ignition no préparation was neccssary before starting, the readiness of the engine for service being thus considerably increased. Moreover, no slides, valves, or complicatod arrangements were needed, and it could be used without risk of any flame or spark being formed outside the cylinder, ail of which points were of grea,t practical value. It might be supposed from this énumération that the electric spark provided the idéal method of ignition ; unfortunately, however, this is not the case. Notwithstanding the care which has been bestowed on the simplification and improvement of electric ignition, it cannot yet be said that it fulfils ail the requirements as regards safety and simplicity, which one has a right to expect in engines.
  - In oil and petrol engines, hot-tube ignition, electric ignition, and ignition by highly compressed air are used.
  - Hot-tube Ignition.
  - Daimler, the founder of the automobile and engineering works “ Daimler-Motorengesellschaft,” who died in 1899, was the inventor of automatic hot-tube ignition. A patent for an ignition tube was taken ont as early as 1879 by Léo Funk, but the action of this tube was not automatic.
  - Its interior was placed in connection with the clearance space containing the charge, at the very instant ignition occurred, by means of a mechanically operated slide. The charactcr-istic feature of the automatic bot tube is that its interior surfaces are continuaily in communication with the clearance space and tlie charge contained therein. Funk’s invention was, nevertheless, of value, and it was extensively used in the late ’eighties and early ’ninetics as a mechanical System of hot-tube ignition. Its use facili-tated the starting of large
  - engines, in the case of which, wlien turned by hand, prc-ignition was frequent, since it was not possible to give the llywheol the regular speed to ensure well-timed action for the ignition tube, The two inventions were materially different. Daimlcr’s patent was valid up to 1898.
  - The great simplicity of the Daimler tube-ignition System led to its being adopted, long before the patent lapsed, by a large number of manufacturers
  - Fia. 73.
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- - 78
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - who were unaware that they wore thereby infriuging Daimler’s rights. It was only during the last years of liis patent that Daimler fought the infringements with success.
  - Fig. 73 shows the ignition tube in connection with the combustion chamber; it is close to the inlet valve h, at the point, therefore, where, on the completion of the introduction of the charge, the presence of an inflammable mixture can be relied upon. The tube being closed at one end, its interior does not corne into contact with an inflammable mixture on the admission of a fresh charge, for it remains filled with combustion products. Tt is only during the compression period that a part of the fresh mixture is driven inside the tube, when the products of combustion it contains are forced more and more towards the heated end, and on' rcach-ing the hot zone, the mixture becomes ignited. It might be thought that ignition would ,*777*. then extend directly to the charge PfT contained in the combustion chamber, but this is not the case, and more frequently this becomes ignited only on the completion of the compression period, or shortly before this point.
  - This is a featurc of the Daimler hot-tube ignition System. With the engine running at its full speed, the flame is kept inside the tube until the instant for ignition of the charge occurs.
  - As soon as a flame lias been formed at the hot zone, the ignited stratum of gas is acted
  - on by two opposite forces, one being that with which the process of ignition of particles of fuel tends to spread backwards to other fuel particles, and the other the force of compression driving the mixture invvards. So long as the latter is sufficiently great to ovcrcome or neutralise the effect of the rate of combustion, the ignited stratum remains in the tube, and it is only when the piston nears the end of its stroke and the rate of compression decreases, that the ignited stratum worlts towards the charge in the combustion chamber to eommunicate to it ignition near the dead-centre. The timinsr of ignition varies with the lengtli of the hot tube and lhe position of the hot zone.
  - For obtaining well-timed and régulai- ignition, the hot tube must not exceed certain proportions, in order to ensure the mixture which can flow
  - Fig. 74.
  - Fig. 75.
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- - IGNITION DEVICES FOR OIL AND PETROL ENGINES.
  - 79
  - into it filling up the whole cross-section. If tlie tube is of too vvide a diameter, eddies and counter-cnrrents are set up ; the period of ignition varies ; knocking is produced in the engine and prématuré ignition often occurs, especially at starting.
  - The mixture must form, as it vvere, a piston or plug inside the tube, filling up the whole section. This lias a great effect on the well-timed ignition. A vertical tube acts better in this respect than a horizontal one. The tubes are made of porcelain, platinum, and nickel.
  - Porcelain is advantageous in that it rapidly becomes bot and maintains its beat for a long period ; it resists the Chemical action of the bot flame, and is cheap. On the other hand, it may easily lie broken or eracked if it should corne into contact with water. Platinum offers a greater résistance to meclianical action, but it is very costly and is only used for automobile or boat engines. Nickel does not withstand the corroding action of the flame so well as platinum, and the wall of the tube lias to be made much tliicker. At the présent time only porcelain and nickel tubes are used ; the first are often made with a métal end for fitting them to the engine. Figs. 74 to 76 show porcelain bot tubes of the current dimensions.
  - Electric Ignition.
  - Although hot-tube ignition is both simple and cheap, the fire risks which the use of heating lamps entails and the impossibility of retarding ignition within sufficiently wide limits, bave contributed largely to a rcturn to electric ignition which, as is well known, was used in the early ’sixties by Lenoir as the means of ignition in bis gas engine.
  - At that early period the many imperfections in the apparatus used for producing current and for sparking, had thrown electric ignition into disrepute.
  - As soon as electro-technics furnished plfi- 77,
  - more perfect devices, fresh efforts were
  - made to render the electric spark of service for internai combustion engines.
  - Only a very few years after the invention of the dynamo, this new current generator is to be found in use with the old stationary Benz two-stage engine. The dynamo was driven from the flywheel by means of a rope ; the current was transmittcd to an induction coil, the high-tension current from which was used for producing the ignition sparks.
  - As seen in fig. 77, the lead from the coil was connected to a, whence the current passed along the rod c, surrounded by the porcelain insulator g into the combustion chamber, a number of sparks being formed between the points d, e, the circuit being completed through the wall of the combustion chamber and wire b.
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - The dynamo and coil were always kept working, and current circulated not only during ignition, but also when ignition was not required. Some other circuit had therefore to be formed for it, and tliis was provided by the crank lever h, i, so long as the arm h was in contact with the rod c. During the period of ignition the crank lever h, i, was placed in the position shown by dotted Unes. The spark between a and e occurred the moment the distance between h and its corresponding contact was greater than the distance between the points e and d. In tliis device sparking also occurred outside the combustion chamber during the lifting of the arm h.
  - A further improvement in electric ignition was made when a magneto-electric device was used instead of a dynamo continuously running. Tliis device generated current at the moment of ignition only, and of sucli a strength that an induction coil could be dispensed with.
  - So far as the author is aware, these devices were used for the fîrst time in 1889 for the petrol engines of the Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz, and were made by the firm of Robert Bosch, Stuttgart.
  - Besides this now method of current supply, another device connected with the sparking arrangement was then introduced. The voltage of the current was not great cnough to produce suffîciently strong sparking between two fixed points, and it was found to be necessary to separate rapidly at the moment the current was produced two points in contact with eacli other. By this means, the almost invisible spark could be increased considerably in length, and in spite of the use of much lower pressures, ignition was mucli more reliable than with a highcr tension current between two fixed points.
  - In its original form, the magneto-electric device had long been known. üriginally invented by Werner von Siemens, with an I-shapod armature, it was now applied to electric ignition. It consists of a powerful permanent horse-slioe magnet, between whose limbs is rotated an I-shaped armature, wound with insulated wire. When the armature revolves, each time the coil-windings cross the space between the ends of the magnet, current is formed in the windings. The greater the speed of révolution, and the more powerful the magnet, the stronger will be the current generated.
  - If the ends of the wire coils of such an apparatus form a closed circuit through the combustion chamber, and the speed of the armature be so governed that the windings eut the space between the ends of the magnet— the pôles—at the instant of ignition, the circuit at the ignition point being broken at the same instant, strong sparking will take place at the point at vvhich the break is made, and the sparking will be stronger as the circuit is broken more quickly. This is referred to as breaking contact.
  - Both these functions—viz., the rapid rotation of the armature and the breaking of the circuit—must not only be properly performed at the normal speed of the engine, but also when it is working at low speed, as in the starting of stationary engines. In order that these conditions may be fulfilled, the ignition device must not be driven direct from the lay-shaft, but mechariical means must be resorted to, and the lay-shaft be only indirectly
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- - IGNITION DEVICES FOR OIL AND PETROL ENGINES.
  - 81
  - of service. As shown in. figs. 78 and 79, which illnstrate examples of these ignition devices, strong spiral springs are used for operating the shield, tlie springs being stretched by a lever and pawl on the lay-shaft, and released at the correct moment of ignition.
  - The reciprocating action of the heavy armature, owing to its inertia, has a bad effect on the bearings, and efforts made to improve tliis bave led Bosch to insert between the armature and the sides of the magnet a light rockiug shield. In this form, the heavy armature is stationary while the shield is rocked. The génération of curreut is not inlluenced by this arrangement, while the necessity of collecting the current by brush contacts is obviated, it being taken directly from a motionless armature, as seen in fig. 78.
  - >------------<
  - -I
  - Fie;, 78.—a, Horse-shoe magnet ; b, I-sha])ed armature ; c, Wire coil winding ; d, Eiul of rocking shield ; c, Spindle for shield.
  - In automobile engines, which can be turned so quickly by hand that sufficiently strong sparking is produced at starting, it is not necessary to rotate the armature, but it may be driven direct from the larger cam shaft by gear or chain transmission.
  - Points of great importance in magneto-electric ignition are connected with the supply and breaking of the current. The advantage possessed by the Benz electric ignition, illustrated in fig. 77, in uhich the carrent is led by conductors inside the engine, disappears with magneto-electric ignition. In the latter, the circuit is broken inside the combustion cliamber; movable parts working in glands are necessary, and these may cause numerous failures, to which we shall refer later on when dealing with breakdowns, to which engines are liable. Fig. 80 shows the circuit breaker which has been tnost generally adopted up to the présent.
  - 6
- p.81 - vue 97/354
- - Fig. 79.—Magneto-electric ignition for stationary engines by Robert Bosch, Stuttgart. Maximum rotation of shield. Extrême position of T lever on return.
  - OIL MOTOBS.
- p.82 - vue 98/354
- - IGNITION DEVICES FOI? OIL AND PETROL ENGINES.
  - 83
  - In order to be able to test the circuit-breaking de vice rapidly at any time, both electrically and for leakage, it is mounted on its support or flange in such a way as to be easily removed from the combustion chamber by taking out two screvvs. As is well known, the ignition in an engine running at fu.ll-speed has to take place much sooner than at starting. The quick-return motion of tlie armature, or rather of the sliield, and also the interruption action of the ignition lever, hâve therefore to take place at different periods during running, and must be adjustable. So long as the armature and interrupter rods are operated by the same springs, the moments of greatest intensity of the current and the breaking of the contact coincide. If, how-ever, the armature spindle is driven direct from the cam-shaft, as is the case in high-speed engines, the moment.at which current is at its maximum cannot be made to correspond readily with the various instants at which the circuit is broken, and both must be adjusted to the altored conditions. As a rule, this double régulation is not used, and the breaking device alone is
  - Fig. 80.—Ignition mounting.
  - 1, Inside contact-breaking or ignition lever.
  - 2, Outside contact - breaking or ignition lever.
  - 3, Contact pin.
  - 4, Insulating cône, also insuring tigbtness, of soa])stone or stcatite.
  - 5, Deptli to winch the ignition mounting enters the engine casting.
  - made adjustable, while the working of the armature romains constant. The less satisfactory positions of the armature are passed so rapidly that suffîcient pressure for ignition is produced. It is only in engines in which spécial reliability of ignition is required, and in which a variation of speed within wide limits is necessary, that ignition devices in which the armature and breaking device can be simultaneously adjusted, are needed.
  - The perfect insulation of the fixed contact gave rise to a number of difficultés, and ail kinds of insulation material hâve been tried—porcelain, enamel, soapstone, mica, etc.,—but so far none has been found to meet ail conditions. It is necessary that it should not only be most reliable as an insulator, but it must also be able to withstand the high température inside the combustion chamber, and the mechanical action of the ignition lever in striking the fixed contact. Fig. 80 shows one of these devices with soapstone insulation. Figs. 81 to 83 illustrate magneto-electric apparatus of the Apparatenbauanstalt Fischer, Frankfort.
  - The electric contact-breaking ignition, as first introduced, was not suitable for high-speed automobile engines, in spite of its many advantages. The rocking motion of the movable levers of the contact breaker is immaterial in slow-speed stationary engines. At speeds exceeding 400
- p.83 - vue 99/354
- - 84
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - révolutions per minute there is, however, such excessive wear of the pins and joints, that for speeds of 800 révolutions and over, its use is absolutely impossible. The moving lever contact, though tightly packed at first, soon wears and causes lealcage, and, on account of the small capacity of the oylinders in automobile engines, such loss is very noticeable.
  - Tlie automobile builders, in the earlier days, had thercforc to be content with tube ignition and the old System of electric ignition, in which an induction sparking coil was used ; hence they had to look for irnprovements upon thèse methods in somo other direction, Efforts towards tliis end were
  - Magnoto-electric igni- !ji:
  - tion apparatus, with f
  - rotary armature, for auto- ||
  - mobile engines. '
  - ï
  - Fig. 82.
  - Fig. 83.
  - Magnéto - electric ignition apparatus with rocking armature shield, and dillerent types of springs for stationary engines.
  - I'
  - successful at the time of the great boom experienced by tlie automobile industry in h1 rance, and to the firm of Messrs de Dion et Bouton, Puteaux, near Paris, are due marked irnprovements in electric ignition. They provided the small high-speed engines, which they were then fitting to motor-tricycles, with an ignition device similar to that of Benz referred to at the commencement of the présent chapter. But a new departure in the Dion-Bouton device was the rcmoval of the induction coil, which involved an uneconomical consumption of current, and in which the Neef hannner had proved to be a very unreliablo fitting; while, when using the induction coil, the circuit breaking was elfected by the electric current itself. In this case the ongine gearing was resorted to. The description given in Chapter VIII. of the old de Dion-Bouton engine, shows the manner in which this was
- p.84 - vue 100/354
- - IGNITION DEVICES FOE OIL AND PETE O L ENGINES.
  - 85
  - done. A further improvement in electric ignition was introduced by tlie French firrn wlien tboy brouglit out tlie sparking plug, wliich lias been very generally adopted.
  - Accumulator batteries liad been improved, and could now be used as a source of current supply for electric ignition. The de Dion-Bouton sparking plug supplied witli current from a battery becaine a suitable ignition device for high-speed engines ; it was simple and cheap, contained no moving parts, and was not dépendent in any way upon tlie nuinber of révolutions of tlie engine. Since tlie current is required only at the instant at wliich ignition takes place, comparatively small and light batteries are sufficient for long journeys.
  - As already stated, the early form of sparking plug ignition device is shown in tlie old de Dion-Bouton engine. Figs. 84 to 86 show later forms, tliese particular ones being niade by the Aeckarsulmer-Fahrrad-werke.
  - The attempts made to be in-dependent of the limited strength of the current from the batteries while retaining tlie sparking ping, soon led to the adaptation of the System of niagneto-eurrent génération to the production of sparks botween two fixed points. In order to secure this, nothing more was needed than to give the current generated by the magneto-machine a snlîiciently liigh pressure by the use of an induction coil This type of ignition device lias been improved, ospeeially by Ernst Eisemann & Co., Stuttgart.
  - Robert Bosch, also of Stuttgart, lias succeeded in rendering the current generated by tlie magnéto device suitable for application to high-speed automobile engines. But lie does not use a separate induction coil to obtain a high-pressure current, producing it directly in the armature winding.
  - The advantages of this high-tension ignition System consist, in addition to the abolition of the induction coil witli its mimerons conductor wires, in the fact tliat the discharges between the points of the plug do not occur as short sparks, but as arcs of longer duration. The very hot arc tlius formed insures regular ignition even with poor mixtures.
  - Beyond tlie one cable from the apparatus to tlie plug, no further leads are required for high-tension ignition. The discovery of faults in the insulation
  - Fig. 84.—Sparking plug ol'tlie Neckar-sulnier Falirrad-werke.
  - 1, Screwed liolder ; 2, Screwed mit lbr fix-ing in tlie insulating slicll ; 3, Platinum wire, at the point of wliich the spark is produced; 4, Current lead ; 5, Insulator ; 0, Nut for holding the current lead in-side the sliell ; 7, Terminal eonnected to the plug with the contact breaker.
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- - 86
  - 01L MOTORS.
  - is thereby much facilitated. The timing of thc ignition is regulated directly by the adjustment of tlie apparatus, to which a movement through 40° is allowed, measured ou its axis, and ignition is advanced or retarded according as the contact breaker is turned one way or the other. This possible move-ment of the contact breaker corresponds to an angular movement of the erank-shaft of 50° in three-cylinder engines, 40° in four-cylinder engin es, and about 27° in those having six cylindcrs.
  - Figs. 87 and 88 illustrate a higli-tension ignition apparatus ; fig. 89 is a diagram of connections for the apparatus in a four-cylinder engine ; fig. 90 shows the plug used for liigh-tension ignition.
  - — 32
  - Figs. 85 and 86.—Contact breaker of tlie Neckarsulmer Falirradwerlce.
  - 19, Casing containing tlie deviee ; 27, Contact piece pivoted on tlie centre 34 ; 26, Screw contact tipped witli a platinum point ; 25, Spring wliich forces the contact-lever 27 against the screwed contact piece ; 35, Arm for turning tlie casing for tlirowing the ignition out of gear ; 33, Hard rubber insulation ; 32, Terminal nuts for dumping tlie wirc conductor.
  - The great advantages of the make-and-break deviee, namely the high température and the bénéficiai effect it bas in producing promptly widc-spread ignition of the charge, bave stimulated efforts to make this form of ignition applicable also to automobile engines. The main obstacle, as already stated, lies in the rapid wear of the interrupter rod and the liability to leakage of the rocking ignition lever gland. By reducing the weiglit and shortening the travel of the rocking parts, and by increasing as much as possible the lengtli of the bearing of the ignition lever sliaft, it has been found possible to increase their life sufliciently for tliem to be used on automobile engines which do not run at too high a speed. There are to-day quite a large uumber of automobile manufacturers who always use make-and-break ignition.
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- - IGNITION DEVICES FOU OIL AND PETllOL ENGINES. 87
  - Figs. 91 and 92 illustrate one of these dcvices with its magnet, made by Robert Bosch, Stuttgart.
  - In place of the rods shown in iig. 91, for operating tlie interrupter lever,
  - /a
  - Figs. 87 and 88. — Boscli liigli-tension ignition apparatus for tlirec-, lbur-, and six-cylinder automobile engiues.
  - 1, Brass end plate on tlie primary winding ; 2, Set screw fastening lixed contact and contact breaker plate ; 3, Fixed contact; 4, Kevolving contact breaker plate ; 5, Long platinum screw contact point ; 6, Contact breaker spring ; 7, Mov-able contact breaker ; 8, Condenser ; 9, Slip ring ; 10, Carbon brusli for collecting current ; 11, Brusli bolder ; 12, Bridge connection ; 13, Carbon for current transmission to distribu tor ; 14, Rotary distributor or commutator ; 15, Dis-tributor carbon brusli ; 10, Distributor ring
  - containing métal segments ; 17, Métal segments let into distributor ring ; 18, Lead terminais ; 19, Fibre dises ; 20, Lever l'or adjusting timing of ignition ; 21, Dust-proof cover ; 22, End co ver ; 23, Cover clarnp ; 24, Terminal for short circuit cable ; 25, Spring for holding cover of contact breaker ; 26, Covcr of contact breaker ; 27, Boss to whieli is lixed spring 25 by screw and nut 28 ; 29, Short platinum screw contact ; 30, Stop to limit adjustment movement of contact breaker.
  - it is usual now to employ vertical cam-shafts driven from tlie lay-siiaft by worrn or bevel gearing, liaving at their upper ends suitable cams winch work the interrupter levers arranged horizontally in the cylinder head. By tliis
- p.87 - vue 103/354
- - 88
  - OIL MOTOlîS.
  - means tlic working is rendered tmich easier. The magnets supplied by liosch for this quick-acting brcaking devicc are sliown in fig. 92.
  - Anotlier method of breaking circuit was introduced in America in the
  - Fie. 89.—Diagram of connections ofa liigh-tension ignition apparatus for a four-cylinder engine.
  - middle of the ’nineties. The break of contact was practically made by a horizontal ignition lever inside the cylinder, worked from within the working cylinder itself. The action took place at the correct instant, that is to say, shortly beforo the piston reached the end of its stroke ; ail rods were abolished,
  - Fig. 90.—Plug for Bosch higli-tension ignition.
  - J, Screwod plug.
  - 2, Packing.
  - 8, Conical ring for holding insulator.
  - 4, Steatite insulator.
  - 5, Terminal scrcw for the lead.
  - (5, Nuts for holding the eurrent-carrying pin in place.
  - 7 and 8, Washers.
  - 9, Packing.
  - 10, Currcnt conductor.
  - as was also the gas-tight gland of the interrupter lever. The speed of the piston shortly bcforc reaching the dead-point is, it is truc, but small, and the occurrence of mislire wlien the eugino is working at a very low speed, was not improbable. Expérience, however, proved that witli the smaller engines these difiiculties could easily be overeome. In spite of thé fact that with this method of ignition the advantage had to be abandoned uf rotarding ignition
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- - IGNITION DEVICES FOR OJL AND PKTROL EN GIN ES.
  - 89
  - IMG. 91.— Adj astable contact-brcuking device by Robert Bosch, fora four-cy Ululer
  - automobile eugiuc.
  - 10—'
  - *------10
  - Imu. 92. —Bosch ignition apparatus, witli rotary armature for high-speed engines with contact-brcuking device.
  - 1, Double muguet ; 2, Armature ; 3, Insulating serews ; 4, Cuiront collecter ; b, Current collector serews ; 6, Front washer ; 7, Back plate ; 8, Felt core ; 9, Leather dise ; 10, Core liolder ; 11, Carbon brushes ; 12, Brusli holders ; 13, Lubricating cover; 14, Screw for lubricating cover ; 15, Spring for sanie; 16, Zinc cover plate; 17, Screw lbr sanie; 18, Washer of armature shaft ; 19, Nut for armature shaft.
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- - 90
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - while the engine was running, and by these ineans ensuring the most favourable consumption of the fuel, “piston contact ignition ” lias been fairly widely adopted, and, owing to its great simplicity, is still employed. The Maurer Union, Nuremberg, are among those manufacturers who bave paid spécial attention to the development of this particular method which they use to a considérable extent on their automobile engines.
  - There remains to be mentioned a still more recent System of make-and-break ignition, which combines the advantages of the plug witli the older
  - details of connections.
  - 1, Contact - breaking lever; 2, l’oie piece ; 3, U-sliaped spring ; 4, Iron casing • 5, Muguet coil winding ; 6, Current conductor ring ; 7, Current conducting pin ; 8, Mica dise ; 9, Tliumb serow for wire lead ; 10, Current conductor plate ; 11, Insulator ; 12, Mica ring ; 13, Upper niagnet cap ; 14, Brass ring ; 15, Brass distance piece ; 16, Screwed ring ; 17, Centering waslier ; 18, Mica plate ; 19, Main insulating ring ; 20, Contact to breaking lever ; 21, Contact on plug ; 22, Steatite core ; 23, Lower muguet cap.
  - break devices. Attempts werc made about six years ago to utilise electricity as a means of breaking contact, in addition to its employaient for the actual formation of sparks, using in one well-known form an iron core wound with wire, the iron forming a magnet when the current flows througli the wire. The power so generated opérâtes the ignition lever or point situated inside the combustion chamber.
  - The lirm Robert Bosch lias also taken up the manufacture of one of these ignition devices, and some time ago introduced it under the name of the Bosch magnéto plug-ignition, Ilonold System. This is shown in figs. 93 to 95. The plug is operated by a niagnet of the usual type.
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- - IGNITION DEVICES FOR OIL AND PETltOL ENGINES.
  - 91
  - The conductors for thc electvic curreut and thoir connections forni a very important part of electric ignition ; the connections often need to bc soldered, and must be capable of withstanding great vibration. Copper wire wound witli one wrapping of insulation is not suitable for these conductors. They are subject to repeated bendings, and the insulation quickly becomes damaged ; the wire often breaks inside the insulation, the circuit is then broken, and as frcquently no outside defects are évident, it is difficult to locate the trouble. These imperfections are best prevented by the use of cables, in which the connection is not dépendent upon one single stiff wire, but is formed of a number of very thin wires wound togetlier, and rubber insulated. Sucli
  - Fig. 96. Fig. 97.
  - Cable eye oi' the Àpparatenbauanstalt Fischer, Frankfurt.
  - Fig.
  - Fig.
  - 96 shows thc manner of lixing the cable in the eye.
  - 97 shows the connection complété.
  - cables are very flexible, and are also suitable for high pressures. Witli cables, however, the diflieulty lies in the terminal connections, and spécial eyes are necessary. Figs. 96 and 97 show a cable terminal-eye.
  - From the above description of the development of electric ignition, it will be seen Lhat difïiculties hâve not been wanting in the work of improving this important adjunct to internai combustion engines. The latter hâve not been simplified by the improved methods of electric ignition, and finality of improve-meut lias by no means been reached.
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- - CHAPTER VI.
  - EXAMPLES OF STATIONARY PETROL AND ALCOHOL ENG1NES.
  - Petkoi. lias excellent properties as a fuel for internai combustion engines, but thc great risk of lire its use entails, its liigli price, and the low degree of compression wbich is possible for the charge, hâve long stimulated research for some other kind of fuel. As pointed out in the third chapter, the efforts made in tliis direction hâve been successful. Crude benzol, “ ergin,” and the mixture of botli with alcohol, liave resulted in fuels which can not only replace petrol, but are even much superior to it for certain purposes. In stationary engines and portable engines, petrol is now seldom used, except in the case of small installations.
  - Crude benzol, “ ergin,” and alcohol are not so volatile that the formation of an explosive mixture can be procured by the simple spraying method as is the case with petrol. With the former thc mixture of fuel spray aud air must be passed, as soon as it is formed, through a heated chamber so that the spray may be converted into vapour and the mixture with air be rendered more complété.
  - The heating medium for such chambers is generally a portion of the hot exhaust gases. This method of heating renders necessary the starting of the engine with some other more volatile fuel. The engine must be run with this fuel until the required température is reached ; the power developed by the engine by the heated and therefoie less dense charge, will be rcduced. The simplicity and reliability of this method is, however, so great that it is frequently adopted. It is only of disadvantage wlien the warming up is carried further tlian is necessary.
  - lu the construction of engines which hâve to work economically with benzol, “ ergin,” and alcohol, the warming device needs to be made adjustable to suit exactly the volatility of the fuel used.
  - Among the first manufacturers who applied devices utilising exhaust gases to their liquid-fuel engines, were Messrs Cebr. Korting, Hanover. Figs. 98 to 102 show one of these engines, which can also be worked with paraffin.
  - 92
- p.92 - vue 108/354
- - I
  - 2, Cylinder cover.
  - 5, Inlet valve casing.
  - 8, Combustion chamber.
  - 10, Exhaust passage.
  - 11, Exhaust valve.
  - 12, Exhaust valve spring. 35, Lubricator.
  - Fig. 98.— Korting’s liquid-fuel engine (petrol, benzol, “ergin,” alcohol, and paraffin), longitudinal section.
  - EXAMPLES OF STATIONARY PETROL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES.
- p.93 - vue 109/354
- - Fig. 99.—Korting’s liquid-fuel engine (plan).
  - 17, Air inlet pipe.
  - 25, Exhaust valve cam.
  - 26, Exhaust valve lever.
  - 27, Inlet valve lever.
  - 28, Inlet valve cam.
  - 29, Inlet valve connecting rod.
  - 33, Governor rod.
  - ID
  - 4^
  - OIL MOTOKS.
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- - EX AMPLES OF STATION AP Y PETROL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES.
  - 95
  - 2, Cylinder cover with valve chest.
  - 5, Inlet valve chest.
  - 6, Inlet valve.
  - 7, Inlet valve spring.
  - 10, Exliaust passage.
  - 11, Exhaust valve.
  - 12, Exliaust valve spring.
  - 16, Cover of fuel-lieating chamber.
  - 21, Entrance of exhaust gases used
  - for heating the chamber.
  - 22, Valve for regulating heating.
  - 26, Exhaust valve lever.
  - 27, Inlet valve lever.
  - 28, Inlet valve cam.
  - 29, Connecting rod for opening inlet
  - valve.
  - 31, Govcrnor spindle.
  - 32, Regulator crank.
  - 33, Governor rod.
  - 34, Throttle valve for governing.
  - 1, Striker for the arm
  - on the spindle of the magnéto armature.
  - 2, Arm on the arma-
  - ture spindle.
  - 4, Lead.
  - 7, Interrupter or
  - trip-rod.
  - 8, Lug by wliich
  - ignition can lie varied.
  - 10, Spring for draw-
  - ing back the armature.
  - 11, Lever on the ar-
  - mature spindle.
  - 13, Exterior arm of
  - interrupter.
  - 14, Disc on the side
  - shaft wliich car-ries the stop 1.
  - Fig. 101.—Kiirting’s liquid-fucl engine (ignition).
- p.95 - vue 111/354
- - Fuel consumption—
  - Uwing pet roi, 0'25 to 0‘4 kg. (’55 to ‘88 lb.) per li.-p. liour.
  - Using petrol plus 92 per cent, alcohol, 0’37 to 0'5 kg. ('81 to 1'] lbs.) per li -p. liour.
  - Fig. 102.—Kbrting’s liquid-fuel engine. .(Oil engiues of tins type are only supplied for powers up to 10 li.-p.)
  - îO
  - Ci
  - OIL MOTOES.
- p.96 - vue 112/354
- - Details of Iyôrting Engines, using petrol, benzol, alcohol, and pargtfin.
  - The engines are built, for petrol, up to 35 h.-p. ; for benzol and alcohol, up to 50 h.-p. ; for paraüin, up to 10 h.-p. inclusive.
  - Horse-power. 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 20 o 5 30 35 40 50
  - Price of petrol, benzol, alcohol, or
  - paraffin engines for ordinary pur-
  - poses £ s. 110 0 121 0 143 0 150 15 187 15 198 5 232 15 260 5 281 15 310 0 33S 10 3S9 0 445 0 517 15 602 10
  - Price of sanie for electrical purposes ,, 111 5 122 0 144 5 154 0 192 0 202 0 237 15 205 5 2S6 15 320 0 348 15 402 15 460 0 536 0 620 10
  - Extra price for outside bearing and
  - foundation bolts . . . ,, 2 4 2 4 3 17 3 17 3 17 3 19 5 5 7 0 7 0 9 8 9 10
  - Approximate weight of the engines :
  - For ordinary purposes. net cwts. qrs. 10 2 14 2 19 0 23 2 38 0 46 0 59 3 72 2 74 3 78 3 90 0 113 1 128 2 166 2 220 4
  - ,, >, gross „ 17 1 21 i 26 3 32 1 48 3 57 0 67 4 81 0 83 O S7 3 101 2 126 1 142 3 180 3 235 2 |
  - ,, electrical „ net ,, ,, 12 1 15 2 20 3 26 3 45 3 54 0 63 2 76 3 78 2 92 3 107 2 133 3 14S 0 196 0 252 4 '
  - î ) H J J OSS ., ) ; 10 0 22 0 28 1 35 2 56 1 Go 1 71 3 85 2 S7 i 101 2 119 0 146 2 162 1 210 1 256 0
  - Normal speed : revs. per minute. 200 o 60 240 240 220 220 200 200 200 190 190 17 0 17 0 160 160
  - Approximate length of engines, ft. ins. 5 1 5 6 6 0 6 h 7 2 8 0 8 10 9 5 10 i 11 7 12 2 12 4 13 10 15 4 16 1
  - „ width „ „ „ 2 8 2 9 3 1 3 7 5 3 5 8 6 5 6 8 G 11 7 5 7 9 8 0 8 4 8 7 9 5
  - „ lieiglit „ „ „ 4 7 4 10 4 11 5 o 5 7 6 1 6 4 6 7 G 9 6 11 i 0 7 4 7 8 8 6 8 S i
  - Diameter of ilywheel for ordi-
  - nary purposes. . . . 3 4 4 0 4 4 4 9 5 9 6 1 6 10 7 G i 6 7 11 8 0 8 S 9 9 9 9 10 6
  - Diameter of flywlieel for elec-
  - trical purposes . . . ,, ,, 4 0 4 4 4 9 5 1 6 1 6 5 7 1 7 9 7 9 8 4 8 6 9 1 9 8 10 4 11 0
  - Diameter of normal belt-pulley ,, ,, 1 4 1 4 1 8 i S O 0 2 0 2 8 2 8 2 8 3 4 3 4 3 11 3 11 4 3 4 3
  - Rim „ ,, îns. 71 * a 10, « ? 10 11, 3 133 141 10 i 18; . 181 21 S 25, ’fj 29J 291 331
  - Width of belt .... ,, 23 Ah 4 4, 1 S 5è 61 6J 7 V s- Si 10 .1 Z H, 1 13} 13} 15}
  - Price of normal belt-pulley . £ s. 14 15 16 0 25 0 28 10 33 10 37 10
  - Price of cast-iron base plate . ,, 5 15 6 0 7 10 8 15
  - Weight of „ ,, cwts. qrs. 3 0 3 1 4 0 4 4
  - co
  - EXAMINES OE MTATIONARY PETROL ANI) ALCOHOL ENGINE,S.
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- - 98
  - OÏL MOTORS.
  - Stationary Liquid-fuel Engines working with Petrol, Benzol, Paraffin, Alcohol, “Ergin,” etc., built by the Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz.
  - Horizontal slow-speed engines are illustrated in figs. 103 to 109. The engines can work with petrol, benzol, alcohol, “ergin,” and paraffin. The engines hâve to be tested thoroughly for eaeh kind of fuel. The formation of the explosive mixture is effected by means of pumps and an atomiser, or by means of a vaporiser. Cooling is carried out by water circulation or by évaporation. When working with “ergin,” alcohol, and paraffin, the engine rnust be started with petrol.
  - r--------
  - T ”
  - Fig. 103.—Deutz slow-speed liquid-fuel engine, in wliicli the mixture is formée! by means of a pump and an atomiser (side élévation).
  - A, Working cylinder ; h, Fuel pump; u u', Fuel pipe; o, Mixing cliamber ; /, Air régulation ; v, Cliamber for the atomiser ; p1, Inlet valve rod ; n, Inlet cam ; r r , Lever for working the fuel pump ; w.2, Lay sliaft.
- p.98 - vue 114/354
- - EXAMPLES OF STATION Ali Y PETROL AND ALC01I0L ENGINE».
  - 99
  - Fig. 104.—Deutz liquid-fael engine. (Section I, II of iig. 103.)
  - c, Air inlet.
  - /’, Air regulating cock. g, Fuel atomiser.
  - o, Mixing chamber.
  - p, p", Inlet valve lever. p , Inlet valve rud.
  - uf, Fuel pipe.
  - 1), Exliaust ilange pipe. c, c', l, ltods connected to magnéto. b io, Trip rod.
  - IJ, Ignition mounting ilange.
  - v,', Puni]) lever roller.
  - 'io.2, Ignition rod dise crank.
  - Fig. 105. —Deutz liquid - fuel engine. (Section through valves in engines witli pump .and atomiser.)
  - p, p", andjt/, Inlet valve levers and rod. G, Inlet valve. u, Inlet cam.
  - D, Exliaust valve, m, Cam for exliaust valve. ni', q, Exliaust valve lever. r, r\ Pump lever. w, Lay shaft.
  - O «w
- p.99 - vue 115/354
- - 100
  - O IL MOTORS.
  - Fig. 106. — Dcutz liquid-fuel engine, using a vaporiser (longitudinal section).
  - II, Float chainbcr. i, Float valve. c, Vaporiser. o, Outlet for fuel. s, Fuel pipe.
  - I), Air inlet.
  - L, Hôlder for petrol for starting. m, /•, Device for efleeting the cliange of fuel al'ter starting.
  - Fig. 107.—Deutz liquid-fuel engine litted witli évaporation cooling jacket. (Section. )
  - The cooling jacket of the cylinder is widened out at top and is closed with a cover. The water level is shown hy a gauge. Ail the water is evaporated and the steam fonned eseapes into the atmosphère.
- p.100 - vue 116/354
- - EXAMPLES OF STATION AP Y PETPOL AND ALCOIIOL ENGINES. 101
  - Fig. 109.—Deutz liquid-fuel cngine witli vaporiser.
- p.101 - vue 117/354
- - 102
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Détails of Deutz Liquid-Fuel Stationaiiy Engines, in sizcsfrom 4 to 20 h.-p,
  - The engines of froin 20 to 30 h.-p. are built of dillerent type.
  - Désignation of size. b d ! « h k m
  - Maximum j Petrol, benzol, paraiïïn 4*25 6*25 8*25 10*7 14 18 23
  - horse-power l Alcohol, “ ergin ” . Price of engine for ordinary purposes» witli fuel 4-3 6*8 9*00 11*5 16 20 25
  - tank, silencer, attendante tools, oil-can, spare | parts, ami belt-pulley £ a. 85 ü 105 0 122 10 100 0 177 10 227 10 275 0
  - 1 Price of fouiulation aceessories formasonry
  - fouudations ; 0 15 1 0 1 5 1 5 2 0 2 10 3 0
  - Price of cast-iron foundation fraine . . ,, 1 5 10 G 10 7 5 8 0 10 0 11 0 13 0
  - Extra for évaporation cooling . . . 7 10 7 10 10 0 10 0 12 10 15 0 15 0
  - ! Speed : revs. per minute .... 350 350. 330 300 280 250 230
  - ; Diameter of belt-pulley ins. nu 13} 153 23§ 33j7c 39g
  - Kim ,, ,, 8.1 OU us 13 13.] 15* 161
  - Width of beib 3{S H- 81 h v,7. VI
  - i net cwts. ors. 12 1 10 0 21 0 24 2 37 1 49 1 07 0
  - Approximate weight of engine. : <gross ,, 15 3 20 0 25 1 30 2 44 1 57 0 70 3
  - Extra with engine for eïeetrie driving without
  - belt-pulley :
  - 1. With hcavy lly wheel and outside beariug :
  - (a) with foundation aceessories for masonry
  - fouudations £ s. 9 0 9 10 10 0 10 10 11 10 19 0 21 0
  - (b) with cast-iron iloor frame . . ,, 12 0 12 10 14 0 14 0 15 10 23 10 25 10
  - 2. With two llywheels () 9 0 9 10 10 0 10 10 11 10 19 0 21 0
  - Engine with une llywhccl : i
  - Diameter of belt llywlieel . . . ft. ins. 4 3 4 7 4 11 5 3 5 11 ( 6 11 ' 7 7
  - Doit speed ft. per sec. 70 83 1 85 82 85*0 89 90
  - Width of belt ins. Krom centre of eylinder to centre of outside 2A 23 3i qi r» *>i r. 4* 54
  - beariug : without belt-pulley . . . ins. 24 J m SH 35 ,V, 392 441
  - With belt-pulley „ 29 h 34|. 1 37 40 J 45 492 KK1.
  - Engine with two llywheels : !
  - Diameter of belt llywlieel . . ft. ins. 3 1 3 7 1 3 11 4 3 4 7 5 3 5 11
  - Belt speed ft. per sec. 56 06 08 . 66 66 68*9 70’6
  - Width of belt ins. Price of engine for power transmission, 3à 34 3 i *fî 4y 61 6.1 7 i • i
  - with two llywheels, évaporation cooling (without silencer) £ 90 0 110 130 167 10 187 10 235 0 282 10
  - Engine for power transmission :
  - Diameter of belt llywlieel . . . ft. ins. 2 6 2 8 2 9 2 11 2 11 3 3 3 7
  - Itim ,, ,, .... ins. G.Ï 03 VU 811 10 A 12i
  - Width of belt - M 2Ï 23 3J 81 3{g 4{i 54-
  - Belt speed ft. per sec/ 45 49 40*6 46 42*8 42*7 42*7
- p.102 - vue 118/354
- - EXAMPLES OF STATIONA11Y PETEOL AND ALCOIIOL ENGINES.
  - 103
  - Deutz Stationary Vertical High-speed Engine, with Crank-shaft below, in sizes from 1-25 to 36 h.-p.
  - These engines are on the Unes of automobile cnginos ; they are built with one, two, and four cylinders, and are fitted with the yaporising device slxown in fig. 106.
  - 297“
  - Fig. 110.
- p.103 - vue 119/354
- - 104
  - OIL MOTOKS.
  - 2371
  - Fig. 111.
- p.104 - vue 120/354
- - Details op Deutz Liquid-Fuel Engines,
  - illustrated in fi g s. 110 and 111.
  - One-cylinder engines. Two-c3Tlinder engines. Four-cylinder engines including outside bearing.
  - Désignation of size. a 9 h 9- hz kz Mz 1c2z
  - Maximum power . . . . . . . . . h.p. 1-25 4*5 6 9 12 18 25 36
  - Price of engine for power or lighting, with fuel tank, silencer, attendants tools, oil-can, spare parts, belt-pulley, and starting liandle £ s. 43 15 75 0 85 0 140 0 163 15 200 0 325 0 400 0
  - Price of foundation accessories for inasonry foundation . . ,, 0 10 1 5 1 10 1 5 1 10 2 0 2 5 3 0
  - Speed : revs. per minute . . . . . . . . 750 660 600 660 600 475 600 475
  - Diameter of belt-pulley ........ ins. 7$ Il 1 3 1 JTïT IH 164 18$ 23g 18$ 23g
  - Widtli ,, 3i 5t 6-1,1- 8i 10g 16$ 20H
  - » ofbelt ,, lyV 2* n 3$ m 5J 7$ lOfV
  - Approximate weight of engine (witli flywheel and belt- pulley) ......... net cwts. qrs. 2 3 5 3 7 1 8 0 11 1 15 3 19 3 29 2
  - Without silencer ....... gross ,, ., 3 1 6 3 8 3 9 2 13 1 17 3 22 2 33 2
  - Details of Swiderski Liquid-Fuel Engines,
  - illustrated infigs. 112 to 114.
  - Normal effective borse-power. 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 15
  - Price of complété engine, including spare parts attendants tools ...... and . £ s. 67 10 75 0 87 10 100 0 115 0 130 0 157 10 180 0 215 0
  - Price of foundation bolts and plates * 1 ? ci 0 12 0 15 0 18 1 0 1 2 1 5 1 8 1 14 2 0
  - Speed : revs. per minute ..... 360 340 330 300 270 250 240 230 220
  - Diameter of standard flywheel .... ft. ins. 2 5i 2 91 2 111 Vf 3 3§ 3 7 A 4 IA 4 5$ 4 11 5 3
  - Rim ,, ,, . . . . „ ins. 2f 3$ H 34 31- 3 ht 4$ 1 A 8è
  - Diameter ,, belt-pulley . . . . • ? ? i t 9ht 9ht lift 13Ï 1 7-1-! 1 * «T 19ht 23| 27 A
  - Rim ,, ., . . . . Price for second flywheel for eleetric lighting . • y j .ZI 5 h n 'T*T 8| 11 12* 13f 15!
  - . £ s. : >> c 3 10 4 0 4 10 5 0 5 10 6 15 8 5 9 10 11 10
  - Net weight of standard engine .... cwts. <[1’S. j 7 3 9 3 11 3 15 3 18 3 22 2 27 2 29 2 43 1
  - Gross ,, ,, . ! ô 10 3 12 3 15 3 19 3 22 2 28 2 34 2 36 2 51 1
  - Price of ordinary packing ..... . £*. 1 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 14 2 0 2 5 2 10 2 18 3 10
  - Price of hand starting-device ..... ' ” ! 1 2 5 210 2 15 3 0 3 5 3 10 3 15 4 0 4 5
  - EXAMPLES OF STATIONARY l’ETROL AND ALCOIIOL ENGINES.
- p.105 - vue 121/354
- - 106
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Stationary Liquid-fuel Engine, using Alcohol, Benzol, “Ergin,” Petrol, and Parafïin, built by the Maschinenbau-Aktiengesellschaft, formerly Ph. Swiderski, Leipzig-Plagwitz.
  - This vertical slow-speed engine, of 1 to 15 li.-p., is illustrated in figs. 112 to 114.
  - Fig. 112.
- p.106 - vue 122/354
- - EXAMPLES OF STATION Ail Y PETKOL AND ALCOIIOL ENGIN ES. 107
  - Fig. 113.
  - Figs. 112 and 113.
  - 1, Inlet valve; 2, Exhaust valve; 3, Magnéto; 4, Rod working ignition ; 5, Ignition mounting ; 6, Regulating valve for controlling the heating of tlie vaporising clianiber ; 7, Air-regulation valve ; 8, Hot jaclcet ; 9, Exhaust connections ; 10, Air inlet ; 11, Lay-shaft ; 12, Governor ; 13, Air pump for fuel tank ; 14, Fuel-pump lever.
- p.107 - vue 123/354
- - 108
  - OIL motoes.
  - Fig. ]14.—Swiderski liquid-fuel engine.
- p.108 - vue 124/354
- - EX AMPLES OF STATIONARY PETROL AND ALCOHOL ENGIN ES. 109
  - Stationary Liquid-fuel Engine, using Petrol and Benzol, built by the Motorenfabrik “ Oberursel ” A.-G., Oberursel, near Frankfort-Main.
  - This vertical slow-speed engine is illustrated in figs. 115 to 118.
  - G
  - \
  - M
  - Fin. 115.—Oberursel engine (section tlirougli base-plate).
- p.109 - vue 125/354
- - 110
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Fig. 116.—Oberursel engirie (side élévation).
  - Figs. 115 and 116.
  - F, Base plate ; G (fig. 115), Fuel supply ; H, Air valve ; J, Inlet valve cliest ; L, Ignitiou mounting ; M, Fuel return pipe ; p, Fuel regulating screw ; V, Mixture cliamber ; i, Compression release gear ; k. Striker for operating the exhaust valve ; c, Cam lever ; e, Governing gear ; r, Lever for governor gear ; g, Electric current conductor ; z, Spring casing ; n, Arm on tlie armature spindle ; o, Gam spring operating the armature arm ; q, Movable pin for early or late ignition.
- p.110 - vue 126/354
- - EX AMPLES OF STATIONARY PETÜOL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES. 111
  - Cooling yrater Outlet
  - Coolimj Vf a ter inlet
  - :sss^
  - Fig. 117.—Oberursel liquid-fuel engine.
  - A, exliaust valve ; N, Cover of exliaust valve cliamber; D, Cooling jacket ; h, Inter-rupter arm ; E, Combustion cliamber ; u, s, Fawls by wliicli the exliaust valve is lield up in governing ; v, Chain sprocket for driving the fuel pump ; T, Chain sprocket for working the magnéto ; R, Governor ; S, Eccentric operating the exliaust valve.
- p.111 - vue 127/354
- - 112
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Fig. 118.—Oberursel liquid-fuel cngine. Details of Oberursel Horizontal Engine,
  - usintj 'petroi, a.leohol, paraffin, illustraled in Jig. 119.
  - Size of engine in (i £ K 8 10 12 lf> 18 22 30
  - etlective h.-p. £ s. £ s. j £ .s. £ s. £ s. £ st £ s.
  - Price of engine for ordinary purposes, including acces-sories and sparc parts 130 0 140 0 ltif) 0 192 10 240 0 o o c* si 340 0 390 0
  - Extra, wlien outside bearing, longer sliaft, and llywheel are required 5 0 5 0 6 5 G 5 7 10 7 10 10 0 10 0
  - Extra, wlien for electric lighting a llywheel gov-ernor is supplied, increas-ing uniform running to about 1 in 70 . 7 0 9 0 10 0 11 0 12 0 13 10 15 0 20 0
  - Foundation bolts and plates for brick foundations 1 10 1 10 i 2 0 2 0 2 10 2 10 3 0 4 0
- p.112 - vue 128/354
- - Details of Oberursel Vertical Engine “Gnom,” using petrol and benzol, illmtrated infigs. 115 to 118.
  - Size aceording to h.-p. 1 2 3 4 5 0 8 10 12 15 20 25
  - n.-p. up to approximately 14 3 4 5 61 71 10 12 15 18 24 28
  - Price, including petrol apparatus with magnéto ignition £ g. 02 10 75 0 92 10 107 10 118 15 133 15 165 0 187 10 215 0 242 10 307 10 367 10
  - Height of engine ft. ins. 3 1 3 3 3 5 3 7 3 II 4 3 4 5 5 1 5 7 6 1 6 1 7 3
  - Width of engine, parallel to crank shaft ,, ,, 3 5 3 8 3 8 4 3 4 7 4 11 5 3 5 11 6 5 6 11 7 3 7 4
  - Lengtli (depth) of engine . . ,, ,, 2 4 2 7 2 9 2 11 3 3 3 3 3 7 3 11 4 3 4 7 4 11 5 3
  - Diameter of flywheel . . . . ,, 2 4J 2 71 2 91 2 111 3 3ï two 3 3§ two 3 7 two 3 11 two 4 3 two 4 7 two 4 11 two 5 3
  - Rim ,, ,, .... ins. 2]'> 23 23 •71 -lB il 3 i 31 H U 3» 33
  - | Diameter of belt pulley . . . ,, 73 ID H.3 153 153 19g 23g 251 274 27 h 294 314
  - j Rim „ „ .... 5§ 7 ( b "a Sf 113 113 133 13J 133 173 19 g
  - j Speed „ ,, in revs. per min. 400 360 360 35u 300 300 290 280 270 260 250 250
  - Gross weight . . approximate cwts. qrs. ; 11 3 17 1 18 0 19 1 24 1 32 0 36 1 44 1 52 1 67 1 74 3 86 2
  - | Nett ... jj M ïi ! 9 3 14 2 15 1 16 2 21 1 28 2 32 4 40 2 48 1 63 0 68 4 78 3
  - 00
  - EXAMPLES OF STATIONARY PETROL AN1) ALCOHOL ENGINE». 113
- p.113 - vue 129/354
- - 114
  - OIL MOTORS,
  - Fig. 119.—Statioi^ary engine working witli petrol, alcohol, and parallin, built by the Motorenfabrik Oberursel A.-G., Oberursel, Frankfort-Main.
  - Horizontal slow-speed type. Charge supply by punip and atomiser.
- p.114 - vue 130/354
- - EXAMPLES OF STATIONARY PETROL AND ALCOIIOL ENGINES.
  - 115
  - Grardner Stationary Liquid-fuel Engines, built by Bieberstein & Groedicke, Hamburg.
  - Figs. 120 and 121 illustrate the horizontal slow-speed type, built in sizes from -£ to 55 h.-p.
  - Fio. 120. — Gardner liquid-fuel engine, type 3 to f>.
- p.115 - vue 131/354
- - CS
  - t , •VSvV,
  - '« 1 ,=•' %r ttA , ;-3 u.zmiT , v; ;
  - < v^;ï.s: <,£b > -- ,
  - Fig. 121.—Gardner liquid-fuel engine, type 1 to 2a.
  - OIL MOTORS
- p.116 - vue 132/354
- - EXAMPLES OF STATION Ail Y PETllOL AND ALCOHOL ENGIN ES.
  - 117
  - Détails of Gardnek Liquid-Fuel Enginks, illustralcd infiijs. 120 and 121.
  - s- 3
  - S .S
  - Brake li.-p. using :
  - Petrcil.
  - Par-
  - allin.
  - Approximate weight of engine complété,
  - Gross.
  - Net. Lia.
  - Flywlieel.
  - Kim.
  - Dia.
  - Kim.
  - h.-p. 11.-]). cwt, (111. cwt. (11\ ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. £ S. £ S. £ a. i £ s.
  - 0 4.10 *75 •75 2 4 2 2 0 53 0 rvi. 1 0 0 3 38 0 1 10
  - 350 1*3 1-3 ) 53 0
  - 1 400 1-5 P5 [ 4 4 3 3 0 0 53 2 0 3 49 5 45 0 2 5
  - 320 1 *8 1*8 t 6 3 0
  - 1 A 350 2' a- r 7 0 6 0 0 73 0 r»! 2 0 4 05 o 61 10
  - 2 300 340 2- 5 3- ri- ii 2 9 3 0 73 0 3 0 0 4 79 0 78 0 5 0
  - 2 A 300 340 3- 5 4- 3-25) 3-5 ) ii 3 10 0 0 73 0 53 3 0 0 4 87 10 85 0 5 0
  - 2(iü 5* 4'5 )
  - 3 380 5-4 4-8 y 17 4 14 0 1 n 0 91 3 3 0 5 107 10 107 10 6 10 Il 15
  - 300 fl'-8 fl- )
  - 250 G' 5-3 )
  - 4 270 6'5 fl-7 f- 20 1 15 4 1 3 J 0 !>3 3 6 0 5 120 0 120 0 7 10 12 10
  - 280 0*7 5-9 )
  - 240 8‘5 "r )
  - 4 A 200 9-3 7-7 - 25 3 22 0 1 73 0 113 3 9 0 5 140 0 140 0 9 10 15 0
  - 270 9'6 8- f
  - 230 10-4 8- )
  - 5 250 11-3 8-5 - 32 2 27 2 1 113 1 03 4 0 0 0 105 0 165 0 11 0 17 10
  - 260 11-8 9' )
  - 220 12’ 10'3 )
  - 6 240 13- 11'2 > 40 1 35 2 2 33 1 n 4 0 0 7 190 0 190 0 13 15 22 10
  - 250 13'0 11-7 )
  - 210 17- 10- )
  - 7 220 20' i8- y 04 0 55 2 2 93 1 i.î 5 0 0 7 230 0 237 10 17 10 28 15
  - 240 21- 19-5 )
  - 200 22- 19'5 )
  - S 220 24' 2i- y 66 0 58 3 3 3s 1 21 5 2 0 7 250 0 270 0 18 15 31 5
  - 230 25-5 22-5 1 Two iiywheels
  - 190 20- 24‘ ) - .
  - 9 200 27'5 25-5 y 106 0 92 1 5 4 0 7 320 0 350 0 35 0
  - 220 28- 28' |
  - 190 32- 30- 1
  - 10 200 33'5 31-5 } 111 1 99 2 5 5 0 8 380 0 420 0 37 10
  - 220 371 34-5 J
  - 180 39T> 35- )
  - 11 190 41-5 37' - 137 3 123 <) 5 0 0 9 440 0 480 0 40 0
  - 200 44- 39- )
  - 180 49- 44' )
  - 12 190 52 • 46-5 y 151 2 133 3 5 8 0 9 535 0 560 0 13 15
  - 200 55- 49’ )
  - 180 47' |
  - 12 A 190 60- y 157 2 137 3 5 8 0 9 575 0 000 0 43 15
  - 200 54' )
  - Price of engine complété, using :
  - Petrol and al-cohoi witli magnéto ignition.
  - Paraflin
  - witli
  - tube
  - ignition.
  - Extra price
  - for two iiy-
  - wlieels.
  - for
  - iight-
  - ing
  - type.
- p.117 - vue 133/354
- - 118
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Liquid-fuel Stationary Engines, built by Tangyes Ltd., Cornwall Works, Birmingham.
  - Horizontal slow-speed engines, in sizes of from 2 to 40 h.-p., are illustrated in figs. 122 to 129.
  - Fig. 122.—Vertical section of Tangye enginc.
  - »
- p.118 - vue 134/354
- - EXAMPLES OF STATIONAEY PEÏROL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES. 119
  - Fig. 124.—Oross-seetion oi‘ Tangye engine.
  - Fig. 126. —Electric ignitiou.
  - Fig. 127.—Tangye liquid-fuel engine, nsing petrol, benzol, and paraffin, for small powers.
- p.119 - vue 135/354
- - 120
  - OIL MOTOES.
  - Fig. 128.—Tangye liquid-fuel engine, using petrol, benzol, and paraffin, for large powers
  - Fig. 129.—Tangye alcoliol engine.
- p.120 - vue 136/354
- - EXAMPLES OF STATION ARY PETROL AND ALCOIIOL ENG1NES. 121
  - Liquid-fuel Stationary Engines, using Petrol, Benzol, “Ergin,” and Alcohol, Sôhnlein System, built by the “ Solos ” Motorengesellschaft, Wiesbaden.
  - The two-stroke-cycle slow-speed engine is illustrated in figs. 130 and 131.
  - Î12
  - Fig. 130.—Sohnlein two-stroke-cycle, valvclcss engine.
  - 1, Fuel inlet port ; 2, Mixture chamber ; 3, Cook i'or speed governing ; 4, Air passage from crank chamber ; 5, Air inlet ; 6, Air passage to working cylinder ; 7, Dellector on the piston to guide the new charge into tlie combustion chamber ; 8, Exliaust: port ; 9, Exliaust pipe ; 10, Opening for ignition device ; 11, Jacket water inlet ; 12, Jacket water outlet ; 13, Feed needle valve ; 14, Fuel inlet ; 15, Air inlet.
- p.121 - vue 137/354
- - 122
  - OIL MOTOES.
  - Fig. 131.—Solinlein two-stroke-cycle valveless engine
- p.122 - vue 138/354
- - Details of Sôhnlein Engines, illustrated in figs. 130 and 131.
  - Piston speed 98‘43 ins. per second. Piston speed 157'48 ins. per second.
  - i i Type. Cylinder. H.-P. Révolutions per minute. Price of engine with battery ignition. Extra for magnéto ignition. Type. Cylinder. H.-P. Révolutions per minute. Price of engine with battery ignition. Extra for magnéto ignition.
  - No. Bore. Stroke. No. Bore. Stroke.
  - ins. ins. £, S. £ S. ins. ins. £ s. £ S.
  - I 1 i 3-h m 1-5 750 40 0 8 15 I 1 1 3-15. ° 1 Tf 3 1200 40 0 8 15
  - II 1 i 3ft m 3 600 47 10 8 15 II 1 1 m 4-11 ’IG 4‘5 1000 47 10 8 15
  - III 1 i m 5^ 4 500 60 0 8 15 III 1 1 m 6‘5 800 60 0 8 15
  - VI 1 i H m 6 5 330 80 0 10 0 IV 1 1 5t 811 10-5 530 80 0 10 0
  - IV 2 2 H su 13 330 160 0 11 5 I 2 2 H 31(1 6 1200 80 0 10 0
  - III 3 3 m 51 11 500 170 10 11 5 II 2 o m m 9 1000 95 0 10 0
  - IV 3 3 811 19 330 230 0 12 10 III 2 2 4H 5g- 13 800 120 0 10 0
  - IV 4 4 5k 8 il 26 330 310 0 14 0 IV 2 2 H m 21 530 160 0 11 5
  - I 3 3 ' 311 9 1200 120 0 11 5
  - II 3 3 31t il!. * i c 13 1000 140 0 11 5
  - III 3 3 4H 5 â 19 800 175 0 11 5
  - IV 3 3 5| 8f 0' 31 530 230 0 12 10
  - I 4 4 H 311 12 1200 150 0 12 10
  - II 4 4 4l4 ^lTT 18 1000 180 0 12 10
  - III 4 4 41.1 ’i il 5t 26 800 225 0 12 10
  - IV 4 4 5| 811 42 530 310 0 14 0
  - co
  - oz
  - EXAMPLES OF STATION Alt Y PETROL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES.
- p.123 - vue 139/354
- - 124
  - OIL MOTOBS.
  - Liquid-fuel Stationary Engines, using Petrol, Benzol, “Ergin,” and Alcohol, constructed on the Banki System, by Ganz & Co., Budapest, Ratisbon and Loebersdorf.
  - These are illustrated in figs. 132 and 133. When petrol is nsed, the engine works with a water spray.
  - ^4-4 - h
  - m i ü
  - Fig. 132.—Banki engine (vertical section).
- p.124 - vue 140/354
- - EXAMPLES OF STATIONAHY PETROL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES.
  - 125
  - Fig. 133.—Banki engine (side élévation).
  - L l, Combustion cliamber ; n, m, Petrol spray and water spray ; t, Regulating nozzle for petrol and water ; k, Exliaust valve ; s, Inlet valve ; V, Exhaust pipe ; G, Strengtlien-ing ribs in cover cooling jacket.
- p.125 - vue 141/354
- - CHAPTER VII.
  - RECENT STATIONARY ENGINE S WORKING WITH PARAFFIN AND CRUDE OIL.
  - As already mentioned, there bave been recently no striking improvements in the construction of engines using paraffin and crude oil, in winch the mixture formation takes place during tlie suction-stroke. The Capitaine engine and the Oberursel engine “ Gnom ” referred to above, are the only on es of tliis kind which hâve hitherto stood their ground in Germany with-out modification of design. To these may be added, as regards Austria, the Banki engine shown in figs. 134 and 135.
  - Similar remarks apply to the class of engines in which the mixture is formed during the compression strolce. In these, the old form of combustion, introduccd by Akroyd and described in the third chapter, is still to the fore. Neither do the newer two-stroke-cycle engines working on this principle, and in which a water spray is added to the paraffin spray, présent any really novel feature ; they form a kind of combination of the Siihnlein valveless two-cycle engine, witli the Akroyd engine, in which the Banki water spray is utilised.
  - In contradistinction to the small progress made witli engines working on the mixture-forming principle, the construction of those working without carburation lias been pushed to a high state of development. This System is represented by the well-known Diesel engine ; this engine ranks among the prime movers, and for cheapness and reliableness, both in medium size and large types, it far exceeds ail other internai combustion engines.
  - The fuel consumption for a 200 horse-power Diesel engine, supplied with paraffin of 9789 calories (17620 B.Th.U.) is from about 179 and 183 grammes (‘39 and -40 lb.) per horse-power hour.
  - An engine very similar to the Diesel motor, is built by the Gebr. Korting Company, Hanover. In this engine the air alone is highly com-pressed, and the fuel is driven in at the commencement of the working-stroke by specially high compressed air. In contrast, however, to what takes place in the Diesel engine, the air used for forcing in the charge is not supplied by a separate pump drawing direct from the atmosphère, but, towards the end of the compx-ession stroke, a certain amount of the cylinder air at this stage already highly compressed, is draxvn off and further compressed. This is
  - 126
- p.126 - vue 142/354
- - STATIONARY ENGINES WORKING WITH PAEAFFIN AND CRUDE OIL. 127
  - used to spray in the fuel deposited in the spraying nozzle, and ignition then takes place automatically, as in the case of the Diesel engine.
  - Stationary Paraffin Engine, Banki System, built by Ganz & Co.,
  - Budapest.
  - (Figs. 134 and 135.)
  - This engine works with a vaporiser, which has been described in Chapter IV. The ignition tube is lieated only when starting up.
  - Fig. 135.
  - A, water jacket ; B, Cylinder liner ; C, Crank chambor and engine base ; E, Cover of crank chamber ; F, Cylinder top cover ; G, Vaporiser ; Iî II', Exlianst jacketed air heater ; a, Petrol feed sprayer ; b, Water sprayer ; c, Air regulating device ; p, Catch l'or holding up the inlet valve when regulating by cutting out explosions ; m, Lifting lever ; q, Spindle lifting the exliaust valve ; K, Eccentric ; k, Eccentric rod ; n, Governor rod ; o r s, Trip mechanism for keeping the exliaust valve open to regulate the speed of the engine.
- p.127 - vue 143/354
- - 128
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Stationary Diesel Engine, working with Paraffin and Crude Oil, built by the Vereinigte Maschinenfabrik, Augsburg and Maschinenbau-gesellschaft, Nuremberg, Augsburg.
  - (Figs. 136 to 143.)
  - The method of working of this engine has been explained in Chapter III. The cost of fuel, including cost of transport by rail of the crude oil, may be reckoned at | to 2 pf. (O'OSd. to 0‘24d.) per horse-power hour, aceording to the size of the engine and the locality.
  - \Exhaust \ Valve
  - From the Jm Fuel Pump a
  - _____4$0
  - Stroke 680
  - Air
  - Pump
  - Figs. 136 and 137.
- p.128 - vue 144/354
- - STATIONARY ENGINES WORKING WITH PARAFFIN AND CRUDE OIL.
  - 129
  - Prom
  - Water Tank
  - \ ; Cooling Water Overf/ow
  - Indicator Plug
  - Indicator Plu y
  - Succion
  - Pipe
  - 'jg^findicator Plug
  - lOT
  - Figs. 138 and 139.—Diesel engine puni]), for second stage of air compression, for supplying tlie air for spraying the fuel.
  - a and b, Suction and pressure valves of the First stage.
- p.129 - vue 145/354
- - ^ Running Position
  - Starting Position
  - Figs. 140 and 141.—Details of a Diesel engine.
  - O
  - A, Exhaust valve \ B, Fuel inlet valve ; E, Inlet valve for air supply m9 V, Compressed air valve for starting tlie engine ; S, Cams for working the valves ; H, Lay shaft ; P, Fuel pump (described in Chapter IV.) ; G, Hand lever of starting gear ; L, Air pump which supplies air for spioying the fuel, shown on a larger scale in figs. 138 and 139.
  - 00
  - o
  - OIL MOTORS.
- p.130 - vue 146/354
- - STATIONARY ENGINES
  - WORKING WITH PARAFEIN AND CRUDE OIL. 131
  - Fro. 142.—120 n.-p. Diesel engine. built by tlie Mascliinenfabrik Augsburg (front view).
- p.131 - vue 147/354
- - 132
  - OIL MOTORS,
  - Fui. 143,—120 li.-jt. Diesel engine, built by the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg (rear view).
- p.132 - vue 148/354
- - Détails of Diesel Engines, built by the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg.
  - One-cylinder engines.
  - Normal effective horse-power.
  - Speed . . . revs. per min,
  - Diameter of flywheel . ft. ins.
  - Outside / perpendicular to
  - measure- | shaft . . ,,
  - ments of ! parallel to shaft ,,
  - engines l height above floor ,,
  - Necessary height of engine-
  - room for erecting . ,,
  - Depth of foundations . ,,
  - Cost at railway station . . £ s.
  - . , -1,1 f net tons
  - Approximate weight1 | „ross
  - 8 10 12 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 100 125 150 200
  - 270 255 250 235 215 205 195 190 180 170 165 160 160 160 155 155 140
  - 5 3 5 11 6 3 6 11 7 10 8 2 8 8 8 10 9 6 10 2 10 6 10 10 ; 11 2 11 6 12 2 12 8 14 1
  - 6 7 7 3 7 11 8 6 9 2 9 10 10 6 10 10 11 2 11 6 11 10 12 2 12 6 12 10 13 2 14 1 15 9
  - 5 7 5 11 6 3 7 3 7 9 8 1 8 4 8 10 9 6 10 2 10 10 11 6 12 10 14 1 15 5 17 1 19 8
  - 6 2 6 4 6 7 7 3 8 1 8 7 8 10 9 6 10 2 10 10 11 6 12 2 12 10 13 9 14 9 16 5 18 1
  - 9 2 9 10 10 6 11 6 12 10 13 6 14 1 14 9 15 5 16 9 17 9 19 0 21 4 22 8 25 3 26 7 29 6
  - 3 4 4 0 4 7 5 3 5 11 6 3 6 7 6 7 6 11 7 3 7 3 7 10 8 6 9 2 9 10 10 2 10 6
  - 250 285 335 435 485 540 600 660 730 850 975 1100 1230 1475 1750 2050 2800
  - 1 9 2 4 3 0 4 4 5 5 6 6 8 0 9 5 11 0 13 5 16 5 19 0 21 5 26 0 33 0 40 0 60 0
  - 2 4 3 0 3 6 5 0 6 4 7 5 9 0 10 5 12 0 15 0 18 0 21 0 24 0 29 0 36 0 44 0 65 0
  - Tico-cylinder engines.
  - Normal effective horse-power. O CO 40 50 60 70 80 100 120 140 160 200 250 300 400
  - Speed revs. per min. 235 215 205 195 190 180 170 165 160 160 160 155 155 140
  - Diameter of flywheel ft ins. 6 11 7 10 8 2 8 8 8 10 9 6 10 2 10 6 10 10 11 2 11 6 12 2 12 8 14 1
  - ~ , .j f perpendicular to shaft Outside measure-J )a^llel ments of engines ^eight aW fl’or > 9 8 6 10 2 9 2 10 10 9 10 11 6 10 6 12 2 10 10 12 10 11 2 13 7 11 6 14 5 11 10 14 5 12 2 15 1 12 6 15 9 12 10 16 9 13 2 18 1 14 1 19 8 15 9 26 3
  - 9 i 7 3 8 1 8 6 8 10 9 6 10 2 10 10 11 6 12 2 12 10 13 9 14 9 16 5 18 1
  - Necessary height of engin'e-room for
  - erecting ...... 99 11 10 13 0 13 5 14 5 15 1 15 9 17 1 18 1 19 4 21 8 23 0 25 7 26 11 30 2
  - Depth of foundations .... 9 9 5 11 6 7 6 11 7 3 7 7 7 11 8 2 8 6 8 10 9 6 10 6 11 10 11 10 12 5
  - • i i ü f net tons ( 9 11 13 15 18 22-5 27-5 32 36-5 44 54 66 98
  - Approximate weiglit . . . j g 8'2 10-5 12-5 14-5 17 20 25 30 35 40 48 58 70 106
  - Cost at railway station .... £ 750 850 950 1065 1180 1300 1525 1750 2000 2250 2725 3250 3800 5300
  - For fluctuations of speed of 1 in 30 for one-cylinder engines, and 1 in 70 for two-cylinder engines. Larger engines are witli three and four cylinders.
  - STATIONARY ENGINES W01ÎKING W1TH PARAFFIN AN JJ CRUDE OII,. 133
- p.133 - vue 149/354
- - Fig. 144.—Trinlder engine, built by the Gebr. Korting Co., Hanover
  - (longitudinal section).
  - OIL MO toi; S.
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- - STATIONARY ENGINES WORKING WITH PARAFFIN AND CRUDE OIL. 135
  - Fig. 145.—Trinkler engine, built by tlie Gebr. Korting Co., Hanover (section througli valve).
  - 0, Piston for delivering the liiglily-compressed air into the cylinder.
  - D, Cliamber for the higlily compressed
  - air.
  - E, Equilibriurn passage connecting the
  - chamber D with the combustion cliamber.
  - G, Overflow passage to F.
  - F, S{)raying nozzle.
  - I, Fuel valve.
  - K, Fuel conduit.
  - Il, Moutil of spraying nozzle.
  - The fuel consumption of a 12 h.-p. engine supplied with crude oil at a calorific value of 9863 calories (17,753 B.Th.U.) amounts to 221 grammes (‘48 lb.) per horse-power hour.
  - Fig, 146,—Trinkler engine, built by the Gebr. Korting Co., Hanover.
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- - 136
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - A vcry interesting parattin engine lias quite recently been brought out by the Bronsmotorenfabrik, Appingedamm, Holland. This motor works on a spécial System, in that a mixture containing a very slight proportion of fuel vapour is formed during the suction and compression period, the charge becoming gradually more inflammable as compression increases. By the combustion of this mixture, i.e. with an increase in température and violent collision of the separate particles, a quantity of fuel, which up to this stage has been prevented from mixing with air, is ail at once atomised and
  - Fig. 147.—Parattin and crade oil engine built by the Bronsinotoreufabrik, Appingedamm
  - (Holland).
  - vaporised. The fuel vapour thus suddenly formed, cornes in sufliciently intimate contact with the additional air to form a mixture which forthwith ignites. The combustion pressure is thus kept uniform for a short time, as in the Diesel engine. The fuel consumption is for these engines very moderate with the small sizes. Au 8 h.-p. engine takes -j- litre (‘44 pint) per horse-power hour.
  - Compression is so great that ignition takes place automatically. The exhaust is clear and odourless.
  - Fig. 147 is a view of the engine. No details of construction were forth-coming.
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- - CHAPTER VIII.
  - AUTOMOBILE ENGINES.
  - The attempts made to drive vehicles on common roads by power, date further back than the invention of tlie steam engine for hauling loads on tracks. Even before Watt’s time, attempts were made to apply the steam engine, in its very crude, early form, to road vehicles ; French engineers had given the problem spécial attention. We find it recorded that as early as 1769, engineer Cugniot, of Paris, had succeeded in building a road veliicle fitted with a two-cylinder steam engine, witli which lie made trial runs in the streets of Paris, and obtained speeds up to 4 kms. (2-4 miles) an hour. English engineers also made many attempts to solve the problem. Àll these efforts, liowever, failed, for the steam engine was not then suffîciently developed to meet the many and varied requirements connectcd with road trafïic.
  - A more favourable field for the development of the steam engine offered itself at that time in traction on rails, and in tliis direction the efforts of English engineers were soon crowned with success. George Stephenson succeeded in building a locomotive engine in 1829 ; tliis was put into actual service, and lias, to tliis day, remained the model upon which ail locomotives hâve been built.
  - In view of the expérience tlms gained with engines for traction on rails, it was thought possible to follow out the sanie type of engine for road vehicles, and experiments in tliis direction were continued down to the early ’sixties, but without any very satisfactory results. The road vehicle tlms evolved was not an actual carriage for the transport of passengers and goods—this desideratum was not attained,—but the woll-known, but then more or less primitive road locomobile, sucli as is used now for operating steam ploughs and for road rolling. It was only wlien the gas engine was introduced, and wlien liquid-fuel was fourni to be suitable in the place of gas for engines of this latter type (i.e. about the late ’seventies and early ’cighties the outcome being the petrol engine), that the correct metliod was fortheoming.
  - Numerous experiments carried out with rail traction engines, fitted with the earlier motors originally built for stationary purposes, had given satisfactory results. It was necessary, however, to still further improve the
  - 137
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- - 138
  - OIL MOTOKS.
  - motors by reducing their weight, and to increase their power by raising their speed ; the reciprocating parts had also to be balanced, in order to overcome vibration of tho vehicle frame.
  - The following remarks with regard to decrease in weight, will show to what extent progress lias been made in the course of a few years.
  - The first petrol stationary engines utilised in 1880 for driving railway engines weighed about 500 kgs. (over 1100 lbs.) per horse-power. By 1886, owing to Daimler’s improvements, the weight had been reduced to 40 kgs. (over 88 lbs.). In 1896, a furtlier decrease in weight was obtained—foi-instance, in the case of the air-cooled bicycle motor built by the French Company, Be Dion et Bouton ; this weighed 12 kgs. (over 26 lbs.) per horse-power. At the présent time the Société “Antoinette,” Paris, builds engines which weigh only \\ to 1 kg. (2‘75 to 2-2 lbs.) per horse-power. In the course of twenty-seven years, therefore, the weight has decreased from 1100 lbs. to 2-2 lbs. Ail theso engines, furtlier, work on the four-stroke cycle, only one lialf of a révolution to every two run by the engine being effective. It is quite possible that the valveless two-cycle engine, referred to above, will also be found to be applicable to vehicles ; also that fuels will be obtain-able which will allow of a higher compression than the petrol now used. If such changes occur, automobile engines will be largely increased in power; there are also probabilities that the weight of the engines will be reduced considerably below the présent limit.
  - Besides their smaller weight, internai combustion engines hâve many other important advantages over steam engines, which render them specially suitable for driving road vehicles. Among these advantages may be men-tioned their higli thermal elhciency ; the fact that they are always ready for working ; the small amount of attention they require ; the highly concentrated character of the liquid-fuel they use, which renders storage on the vehicle a matter of but little difficulty. Ail these are points satisfied only to a very small degree by steam engines.
  - But with ail these advantages, internai combustion engines hâve certain disadvantages which should also be mentioned. They are not easily réversible, and are not readily started, as are steam engines ; their power, also, decreases ont of ail due proportion when speed is much reduced. There is lacking also uniformity of design : so much so, in fact, that it cannot yet be said that a représentative type has been evolved, as is the case, for example, in steam locomotives.
  - In the construction of automobile engines the following features may be said to hâve become standardised :—the vertical construction of the engines; the plurality of cylinders; the arrangement of the valves opposite each other ; the mechanically operated iulet valve ; the casting in one piece of cylinders, covers, and valve chests. There is still much diversity in ignition devices and carburettors.
  - Notwithstanding the rapid development in the construction of automobile engines, there is yet much room for further improvements. They are still
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- - AUTOMOBILE ENGINES.
  - 139
  - déficient, more espeeially as regards durability and economical working, features which, if satisfactorily secured, would render them suitable not only for pleasure and sport vehicles, but also for ordinary traffic and commercial purposes. The improvement in heavy vehicles is tlius a wide field full of promise, open to young engineers. In any attempt made in this direction these workers will be lielped by the fact that the gradually increasing use of the engine in daily life will lead to a more general understanding of ail tliings mechanical.
  - Benz Automobile Engine.
  - When referring, in the third cliapter, to the development of the petrol and paraffin engines, we gave details of the Daimler petrol engine, which has
  - Fig. 148.—Benz automobile engine of 1896 (horizontal section).
  - A, Working cylinder ; B, Engine frame ; O, Crank sliaft bearing ; 1), Small, and E, Large, pillions driving the valve gear ; e, Exhaust cam ; d, Compression relief cam ; /, Hand crank for tlirowing out of gear the cam roller a, for operating the compression relief ; g, Spring which presses against the dise a, for normal running ; O, Contact dise for ignition ; n, Contact springs ; q and r, Wirc leads ; G, Extension of engine frame ; L, Ignition mounting to suit the methods of ignition ; l, Insulation ; K, Wire lead ; m, Sparking points ; N, Exhaust passage ; M, Additional air valve.
  - served as the model for the présent automobile engines. Benz, the founder of the Rheinische Gasmotoren Àktiengesellschaft, Mannheim, carried out, contemporaneously witli Daimler, experiments with the object of constructing an engine suitable for road vehicles. lie first made friais with a horizontal engine built exactly on the pattern of the stationary ones for driving his road vehicles, and adhered to this pattern, with but slight alterations, up to the middle of the ’nineties.
  - This older engine is illustrated in fîgs. 148 and 149. The charge was formed in the carburettor then commonly used, in which the air was drawn through a large quantity of petrol.
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- - 140
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - De Dion-Bouton Automobile Engine.
  - Another important automobile engine was the French De Dion et Bouton engine introduoed in the first half of the ’nineties.
  - Aluminium was used, for the first time, for certain parts of these engines. For the first time, also, batteries were used for supplying current for ignition, and cooling ribs cast perpendicularly to the cylinder axis, which, besides having a good cooling effect, made it possible to reduce the thiekness of the cylinder walls.
  - As new features, mention may also be made of the ignition plug, the use of the circuit contact-breaker instead of the Neef hammer, and the increased
  - Fig. 149.—Beuz automobile engine of 189(5 (side view).
  - K, Lever for retarding ignition ; h, Exhaust lever ; i, Intcrmediate lever for reducing side-thrust on the exliaust valve spindle ; I, Exhaust valve ; K, Automatic inlet valve ; n, Contact spring ; p, Make and hrealc device ; a, Roller on exhaust valve cam lever ; F, Exhaust valve cam lever.
  - speed, up to 1500 révolutions per minute and over. This engine, as will be seen, eontained a number of important improvements. Ail these stood the test of actual service, and are in use at the présent time.
  - Figs. 150 and 151 illustrate the De Dion-Bouton engine as originally designed.
  - The Canello-Dürkopp Automobile Engine (1900).
  - Another forerunner of the présent type of automobile engines for heavy vehicles is the Canello-Dürkopp System, illustrated in figs. 152 and 153. As will be noticed, this is a two-cylinder engine, both cylinders being close together and cast in one piece ; the placing of the valve cliests on opposite sides is also an arrangement now followed.
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- - AUTOMOBILE ENGINES.
  - 141
  - The engine still works with hot-tube ignitiôn and automatic inlet valve. A marked disadvantage of this type is tlie practice of keying the cranks in line on the same side of the crank axis and the use of a heavy counterbalance. With this arrangement the working-strokes may be made to follow one another regularly, but balancing by means of a countenveight on the crank
  - Fig. 150.—De Dion-Bouton engine in its original form (vertical section).
  - À, Crank chamber of aluminium ; B, Working cylinder with radiating ribs ; C, Combustion chamber ; E, Exhaust valve ; F, Inlet valve ; G, Cock for re-ducing compression to facilitate starting ; H, Sparking plug ; L M, Sliaft journals ; K, Crank pin ; O, O’, Distribution pinions ; P, Make and break dise for ignitiôn ; R, Movable dise for retarding ignitiôn ; n, Sparking points ; i, Current lead.
  - Fig. 151.-—De Dion Bouton engine (side élévation).
  - A, Crank chamber of aluminium ; D, Bolts connecting the cylinder cover and the crank chamber ; a, b, Current leads for ignitiôn ; c, Pins of contact breaker spring ; c, Adjustable screw contact point ; /, Contact breaker spring ; h, Head of contact breaker spring.
  - is at the best very imperfect. The cranks of such engines are now keyed at 180°, and balancing is thus automatically effected by the employment of similarly shaped parts of equal weight, in as perfect a manner as possible. The working-strokes, however, are no longer regular, the two following each other immediately, after which there occurs an interval of a full révolution. Then the two working-strokes again follow one another directly, and so on.
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- - 142
  - OIL MOTOES.
  - Notwithstanding this irregular succession of working-strokes, the vibrations on the vehicle frame are not nearly so great as in the case of engines with cranks keyed side by side at 0° in line and balanced by a counterweight.
  - A spécial feature of this engine, and one not of sufficient value to be adhered to, was the method of speed-governing. This was a hit-and-miss System of governing, by keeping the exhaust valve closed and working about of the exhaust gases inside the cylinder, in the manner alluded to in the fourth chapter, which deals with the various methods of governing.
  - Figs. 152 and 153.-—Canello-Diirkopp automobile engine.
  - A, Working cylinder ; B, Crank cliamber ; C, Cylinder cover with valve-cliests cast on ; D, Automatic inlet valve ; E, Exhaust valve ; F, Exhaust valve cover ; G, Inlet valve cover ; H, Counterbalance ; I, Flywlicel ; K, Lay shaft ; O, Crank webs ; b, d, c, Cam shaft gear ; h, e, Governor whicli shifts the lay sliaft in order that the exliaust valve may he ke]>t closed.
  - Recent Automobile Engines. Four-cylinder Engine of the Adlerwerke, vorm. Heinrich Kleyer, Aktiengesellschaft, Frankfort-Main.
  - (Figs. 154, 155, and 156.)
  - The engine casing is cast in one piece with the gear case, as sliown in fig. 156. The engine is fastened by a separate steel base plate (fig. 155) to the vehicle frame ; by this means a stiff and safe support is obtained for the crank shaft, forming at the same time a covering for the mechanical parts against dust and dirt.
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- - AUTOMOBILE ENGINES.
  - 143
  - Ail the gears run in oil. The cylinders are cast together in pairs, surrounded by a common water-jacket. The ignition devices and carburettor are easy of access below the casing.
  - Ignition is by the Bosch high-tension device. The carburettor and governor are described in the fourth chapter.
  - Fio. 154.—Four-cylinder engine of the Adlenverke, vorm. Heinrich Kleyer A.-G., Frankfort-Main (front view).
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- - 144
  - OÏL MOTORS.
  - Fie. 155.—Four-cylinder engine of.tlie Adlenverke, vorni. Ileinricli KleyerA.-G., Frankfort-Main (vertical section).
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- - Fig. 156.—Four-cylinder engine of the Adlerwerke, vorm. Heinrich Kleyer, A.-G., Frankfort-Main (view of combined casing for engine and gear).
  - AUTOMOBILE ENGIN ES.
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- - 146
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Four-cylinder Engine of the Daimler-Motorengesellschaft, Cannstatt.
  - (Figs. 157, 158, and 159.)
  - The valves are arranged on opposite sides of the cylinder. The carburettor is described in the fourth chapter. Ignition is by contact-breaker, in connection with the Bosch magneto-electric apparatus.
  - Fig. 157.—Four-cylinder engine of the Daimler-Motorengesellschaft (exhaust side)
- p.146 - vue 162/354
- - AUTOMOBILE ENGINES.
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- - 148
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Fig. 159.—Four-eylinder engine of the Daimler-Motorengesellscliaft (front view).
  - Six-Cylinder “Hexe ” Engine, built by Achenbach & Co., Hamburg. (Figs. 160 to 163.)
  - In tliis engine the cylinders are cast separately, and tlie valves are placed on opposite sides of the cylinder. The cooling jacket over the combustion chamber is iltted with an easily removable cover. The crank shaft is of nickel steel; the cranks are keyed symmetrically at an angle of 120°. Ignition takes place in the following order, in cylinders 1, 2, 3, 6, 5, 4, and is eftected by contact breaking. When desired, the engines are provided with double ignition, being fitted with botii contact breaker and plug.
  - The Claudel carburettor is used ; this allows of a variation in speed between 120 and 1800 révolutions.
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- - Fig. 160 —Six-cylinder :: Hexe” engine, built by Achenbacb & Co., Hambnrg (side élévation),
  - AUTOMOBILE ENG1NES. 149
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- - Figs. 161 and 162.—Front view and vertical section'of the six-cylinder “ Hexe ” engine, built by Aehenbach & Co., Hamburg.
  - OIL MOTORS.
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- - AUTOMOBILE ENGIN ES.
  - 151
  - Fig. 163.—Crauk shaft of the six-cylinder “ Hexe ” engine, built by Achenbach & Co.,
  - llamburg.
  - Four-cylinder Engine of the “Bayard” Automobile, built by A. Clément, Levallois, Paris.
  - (Figs. 164 to 167.)
  - The eylinders of tliis engine are cast separately, and the valves are fitted on opposite sides. Ignition is on the Simms-Bosch System. The carburettor is of the Clément pattern, described in the fourth chapter.
  - Fig. 164.—Four-cylindcr “ Bayard ” engine (side view).
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- - 152
  - OÏL MOTORS. '
  - Jj’iu. 167.—“ Bayard ” angine (Sirnms-Boseh ignition devicu).
  - Four-cylinder Engine of the Maschinenbau-A.-Gr., vomi. Pb.
  - Swiderski, Leipzig-Plagwitz.
  - (Fig. 168.)
  - This engine nuis witli paraüin ; it is built on the design of the Swiderski paraftin engine described in the third ehapter, and is used for driving heavy vehicles, sucli as those used by Messrs E. Troost, Berlin, for tbeir under-taking in South-West Africa.
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- - Fig. 168.—Paraffin engine for heavy cars, 70 h.-p., built by tlie Maschinenbau-A.-G. vorm. Ph. Swiderski, for Mcssrs E. Troost, Berlin,
  - Hamburg, and South-West Africa.
  - 07
  - CO
  - AUTOMOBILE ENGIN ES.
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- - 154
  - OÏL MOTOHS.
  - Automobile Engine of the Nürnberger Motorfahrzeugfabrik “ Union ”
  - Ltd., Nuremberg.
  - (Figs. 169 to 171.)
  - These engines run at comparatively low speeds; tliey hâve only one cylinder for powers of from 4 to 12 h.-p., two cylinders from 12 to 16 li.-p., and four cylinders for 16 to 30 h.-p. As will be seen from fïg. 170, the one cylinder engine works with piston contact ignition as described in the fifth
  - Fig. 169.—Four-cylinder “ Maurer-Union ” engine (side view).
  - chapter. The pin litted to the bottom of the piston cornes in contact, at the end of the stroke, with the interrupter lever, and breaks contact. Current is supplicd by a Bosch magnéto.
  - Recent Cycle Engines.
  - The prototype of the engines as now used for the propulsion of cycles and light cars, is the De Dion-Bouton engine, to which allusion lias already been made. Besides its light construction, tliis engine is characterised by the System of air-cooling adopted, cooling being facilitated by the radiating
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- - Fig. 170.—One-cylinder “Maurer-Union” engine (section in cylinder),
  - Fig. 171.—One-cylinder “ Maurer-Union ” engine (side yiew)
  - AUTOMOBILE ENGINES. 155
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- - 156
  - on, MOTORS.
  - ribs cast on to tlie cylindcr, the combustion chamber, and valve chests. The fact tliat water-cooling could not be employed in small combustion engin es, and that radiating ribs were quite effective, was well known in tlie ’sevcnties, this mcthod liaving thon been used in the Bisschop engine, built about that tirne by the lato Firm of Buss and Sombart, Magdeburg. In this instance,
  - Air
  - Fig. 172.—Neckarsulmer cycle engine.
  - tlie cylinder was made with longitudinal ribs, to satisfy spécial conditions. In cycle engines, which work in the open and move in a current of air at a high speed, transverse ribs had naturally to be adopted, as these allow the air to strike direct into the spaces between the ribs.
  - Without water-cooling, the construction of the engine is greatly simpliffed ; the vehicle is also lighteued considerably, and at the sanie time made much
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- - AUTOMOBILE ENGIN ES.
  - 157
  - more independent. These considérations are of spécial importance in the case of engines for air-ship propulsion.
  - There are, of course, limits to air-cooling. Its applicability dépends upon the dimensions of the cylinder and the speod of the engine, therefore upon the quantity of fuel which is hurned in a given time. For some time now, the current of air passing lias been increased by fans ; in tins connection it should be noticed that in order that there should be a sufhcient circulation of air, and that cooling should not be effected only on one side of the engine, two fans are now usually provided, one in front and one in the rear, the latter having for its object to carry off the air blown on the engine. The air
  - Fig. 173.—Carburettor of “ La Motosaeoche.
  - A, Mixture chamber ; B C, Float chamber ; D, Screwed joint for A, B, C ; E, Float ; F, Float valve spindlc ; G J, Fuel supply ; II, Float valve; K, Air régulation; M N, Dipper for driving down the lloat on starting the engine ; O, Lever for air supply régulation ; P, Cold air supplv ; T, Connection to inlet valve ; U, Main air pipe.
  - can only hâve a cooling effect vvhen it is, to start with, as cool as possible, and it is not to be expected that, in the case of an engine of several cylinders placed one in the rear of the other in the direction of travel, the rear cylinder can be as effectively cooled as the first one. The heat to be dis-persed by cooling can be estimated as follows :—
  - Of the 10,300 calories contained in a kilogramme (18540 B.Th.U.) of potrol used in these engines, about 15 per cent, is convcrted into work, 30 per cent, goes ont with the exliaust gases, and no less than 55 per cent, lias to be removed by cooling. The development of air-ship engines will lead to greater attention being paid to air cooling, with a view to its iniprovenient. Fig. 172 illustrâtes, diagrammatically, the cycle engine of the Neckar-
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- - 158
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - sulmer Fahrradwerke. The carburettor and ignition device of this engine are described in the fourth and fifth chapters.
  - Cycle Engine “La Motosacoche,” built by H. and A. Dufaux & Co., Geneva, Switzerland.
  - (Figs. 173 to 177.)
  - Fia. 174.—Vertical section of cycle engine bnilt b}7 H. and A. Uufaux & Co., Geneva.
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- - AUTOMOBILE ENGINES.
  - 159
  - The engines and fittings are mounted in a three-cornered frame of the shape of a cycle frame, so that every ordinary bicycle can be converted into a motor cycle by insertion of the engine frame. The valve chests are on the
  - Fig. 175.—Cross-section of cycle engine built by H. and À. Dufaux & Co., Geneva. Figs. 174 and 175. —A, Cylinder ; B, Casing ; 0, Cylinder liead ; D, Starting cock ; E, Regulating screw for equalising pressure in crank cbamber ; F, Exhaust pipe ; G, Nut for holding down the inlet valve mounting ; Glf Pressure equaliser ; H1( Guide for exhaust valve rod ; Mx, Central point of cani lever slot ; P P, Disc of crank ; S, Driving pulley ; U, Crank lever for working the exhaust valve ; V, Inlet valve ; V1( Exhaust valve ; X, Valve lifter ; Y, Block working in the cam slot.
  - front side, and are therefore struck first by the air. The exhaust valve is operated by a cam lever working in a slot. Toothed gears are only used for operating ignition.
  - The 1| h.-p. engine only weighs 7\ kgs. (1G‘5 lbs.).
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- - 160
  - 01L MOTORS.
  - Fie. 177.—(îeneral view of the engine complété (riglit side).
  - A, Fraine ; B, Screws for iixing the engine frame in ilie cycle ; E, Battery ; C F, Electric wire conduc-° tor ; Iî, Clamp plate of battery ; I, Ignition plug ;
  - J, Conductor to ignition plug ;
  - K, Petrol tank ; L, Petrol cut-olf cock ; M, Petrol pipe ; N, Carburcttor ; O, Lubricating oil tank and pump ; Q, Silenccr ;
  - T, Pressure equaliser for crank casing ;
  - U, Ignition current con tact breaker ;
  - V, Ignition control lever. There is a llexible transmission for throttling charge ; Z, Driving pulley.
  - D C'n
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- - AUTOMOBILE ENG1NES.
  - 161
  - Cycle Engine of the Wanderer-Fahrradwerke, Schônau, near Chemnitz.
  - (Fig. 178.)
  - This engine develops h.-p. at 1800 révolutions. Ignition is by magnéto and ignition plug.
  - 108
  - 77 32
  - Fig. 178.—Cycle engine of tlie Wanderer-Fahrradwerke.
  - 1, Cylinder ; 140, Exliaust connection; 107, Charge outrance; 01, Exhaust valve spindle ; 211, Ignition plug ; 09, Exhaust valve rod ; 65, Exhaust valve lever ; 57 and 53, Gears driving the valve cains ; 55 and 50, Gears for working magnéto.
  - 11
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- - 162
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Engine of the Maschinenfabrik “Cyklon,” Rummelsburg, near Berlin.
  - (Kg. 179.)
  - This engine develops 3'5 h.-p. The radiating effect of the cooling ribs is increased by a fan.
  - Fig. 179.—Engine of tho Maschinenfabrik “Cyklon.”
  - 1, Working cylinder ; 2, Piston ; 4, Connecting rod ; 13, Gear pillions ; 15, Crank shaft ; 16, Counterbalance ; 44, Exliaust valve.
- p.162 - vue 178/354
- - CHAPTER IX.
  - SHIP, BOAT, AND AIRSHIP ENGINES.
  - Wiien in the commencement of the last century the American inventor Robert Fui ton had succeeded in building a steam engine suitable for sbip propulsion, it was soon found that tbe steam engine was suited to the larger classes of ships only. For boats and small vessels, tbere was not sufficient space available for the boiler and for stoking, and tbe first cost and the cost of working were besides inuch too high to allow of the general use of small steam-driven craft. À suitable source of power for small craft was only forthcoming on the ad vent of the liquid-fuel internai combustion engine. Fngines of tins type were found to be of sufficiently low cost ; they occupied comparatively little space, and required no very skilful attention in service. In these new engines, however, reversibility and automatic starting were qualities the lack of which was badly felt. Propellers with réversible blades or reverse-acting propellers had to be resorted to, in order to cause the craft to travel with certainty eitlier forward or backward. llisk of fire, which in stationary installations is only, comparatively speaking, an unimportant considération, had to be taken seriously into account in the case of boat engines. The lack of a fuel completely free from fire risk is one of the main causes which bave hitherto prevented motor-driven boats and ships being used to the extent that would be désirable for maritime traffic and fisheries. In this instance, as in the case of transport by land, safe working and cheapness are requirements which remain still to be fulfilled. Most of the types of engines would not stand the rougli handling they would be likely to liave to put up with at sea. The first internai combustion engines for the propulsion of boats were built by Daimler; in 1886, lie fitted a boat with a 2 h.-p. two-cylinder engine he had built spécially for that purpose, and this gave good results. Ile subsequently further successfully developed his petrol engine for marine work. The design of these first petrol boat engines is shown in figs. 180 and 181.
  - The carburettor used was on the pattern of that described on page 26. The exhaust valve was operated by the sliding piece ff working in the groove gg. From the accompanying illustrations, it will be seen that governing was effected by cutting ont the charge by holding the exhaust valve off its seat. The lever which thus lield the exhaust valve open by the
  - 103
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- - 164
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - action of the governor is marked m n. A valve b is shown in the piston ; this was operated on the outer dead centre and allowed the entrance of fresh air. [gnition was by a platinum tube.
  - Two-cylinder Paraffin Boat Engine, built by the Maschinenbau A.-G., vorm. Ph. Swiderski, Leipzig-Plagwitz, in 1895.
  - This enginc works with paraffin and heavy oils in the same way as the Capitaine engine described in the third chapter. In this engine also, the
  - Exhsust Valve Spindles.
  - Exhaust
  - Valve
  - Figs. 180 and 181. —Daimler boat engines built in 1890.
  - cranks are set at 0°. Speed is regulated by liand lever. These engines are built by the firm in large numbers, both for use in the country and for export, and give good results. These engines are shown in figs. 182 and 183.
  - “Sleipner” Boat Engine, built by the Gebr. Korting A. G., Kortingsdorf-Hanover.
  - (Figs. 184 and 185.)
  - This engine can work with petrol, benzol, alcohol, or paraffin. When using the latter fuel, the engine lias to be started with petrol, and run with
- p.164 - vue 180/354
- - SHIP, BOAT, AND AIllSHIP ENGIN ES.
  - 165
  - it until the combustion charnber lias reached the required température. Ignition in the case of engines up to 30 b.-p. is high-tension magneto-electric. For larger engines, the low-tension magneto-ignition is used.
  - If desired, plug ignition and an ac-cumulator are added to the latter.
  - Oiling is not effectcd by splasli-lubrication from the crank charnber, but every part has its own lubri-cator by which the required amount of oil is distributed.
  - The silencer is water-cooled.
  - Fies. 182 and 183.—Swiderski lmat engine.
  - A, Exliaust valve cliest ; b, b^, Réduction geai' ; c, Exliaust valve lever ; cl, g, h, i, Hand lever régulation ; a, Lay sliaft ; /, ITand lever for speed governing ; p, q, n, Starting device ; o, Tightener for starting belt ; m, Lenz puni]).
  - Fie. 182.—Vertical section.
  - Fig. 183.—Side élévation.
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- - 166
  - OIL MOTOllS.
  - Compressed
  - OU Tank
  - IgmCion Plugs
  - ---S
  - Coo/ing Waten
  - CarburetCor
  - fisc Valve
  - v 'Scr/king Rod Lay ShaFl
  - Fig. 184. — “ Slcipner r boat enginc (section tlirougli cylinder).
- p.166 - vue 182/354
- - Dr/ving and reversing dutch
  - Low Tension ignibion M e chaniam.
  - Fig. 185. — “ Sleipner ” {«Kit on gin c (general arrangement).
- pl.n.n. - vue 183/354
- p.n.n. - vue 184/354
- - Details of “Sleipnrr” Boat Engines.
  - Pattern
  - Number of cylinders Speed : revs. per minute
  - 2S. 91 2S. 106
  - 2 2
  - 800 800
  - 2S. 130
  - 2
  - 700
  - 2S. 146
  - 2
  - 700
  - Brake horse-power^ effective horse-power.
  - ; Petrol 0'68 to 0*7 spécifie gravity ....
  - Paraffin................................................
  - j Alcoliol 90 per cent, volume, with 20 per cent, benzol
  - 6 10 15 20
  - 5'5 9 14*5 19*4
  - 5*5 9 15 20
  - | Engine witli flywlieel i Starting and reversing device 1 Protective casing .
  - : Accessories
  - Petrol .......
  - Paraffin ......
  - Alcoliol 90 per cent, volume, witli 20 per cent.
  - Approæimate weight in Ibs.
  - 463 595 910 1100
  - 188 220 375 440
  - 66 77 133 155
  - 77 89 99 110 .
  - Fuel consumption per horse-power-hour. in Ibs.
  - • * « #77 77 •80 •80
  - * • f *93 •88 •86 •88
  - benzol 1 *30 1-30 1-23 1-21
  - Engine...................
  - Starting and reversing device
  - Protective cover.........
  - Total .......
  - Extra for working with paraffin or alcohol
  - Price in £ sterling.
  - 93 10 140 0 180 0 207 10
  - 35 15 40 0 51 10 58 10
  - 10 0 10 15 12 0 12 15
  - 139 5 190 15 243 10 278 15
  - 6 13 6 13 8 0 8 13
  - 4S. 91 4S. 106 4S. 130 4S. 146 4S. 170
  - 4 4 4 4 4
  - 800 800 700 700 700
  - 12 20 30 40 60
  - 11 18 29 39 58
  - 11 19 30 40 58
  - 640 840 1323 1760 2314 j
  - 220 400 485 397 775
  - 133 144 155 177 210
  - 110 133 133 144 165 I
  - 75 •73 •73 •73 i •73 1
  - •88 *84 *82 •82 •82
  - 1-17 1T5 1-15 ! 1-06 1 ro6
  - 183 15 • 220 0 385 0 435 0 , 632 10
  - 40 0 I 58 10 73 10 100 0 160 0
  - 12 0 j 12 15 16 0 19 10 23 10
  - 235 15 ' 291 5 474 10 554 10 816 0
  - 7 7 8 0 9 7 ! 1 10 0 j 10 0
  - O*
  - -a
  - SHIP, BOAT, AND AIUS1IIP EN G IN ES.
- p.167 - vue 185/354
- - Fig. 186.—The Korting six-cylinder submarine boat engine using paraffin
  - ] (j8 01L M0T011S
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- - SIIIP, BOAT, ANI) AIRSIIIP ENGINES.
  - 169
  - The Kôrting Paraffin Engine for Submarine Boats.
  - This is a valvcless two-cycle engine. The crank chamber cloes not act as a mixture pump, a spécial pump being provided for tlie purpose. This is a
  - Fig. 187.—Section througli tho engine-room of a submarine iitted witli tlie Korting paraffin engine.
  - scavenging machine. Betvveen the introduction of a fresh charge and the exhaust of combustion gases, a charge of air is drawn in.
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- - 170
  - OIL MOTOllS.
  - The engine has six cylinders water-jacketed in pairs. There is a vaporiser and one exhaust pipe for every two cylinders. The only mechanism besides the main driving gear—Le. pistons, connecting rods, and shaft—is that for the ignition contact-breaker. As mentioned in the third chapter, the heating of the vaporiser and combustion chamber is done by electricity. The submarine boat being driven under water by an electric motor supplied with current from a large accumulator, there is sufficient current available for starting the engine and for heating purposes. The electric heating is so rapid that the engine can run on paraffin after four or five minutes. Petrol
  - Fig. 188.—Deutz boat engine driven witli paraffin.
  - and other dangerous lnjuid-fuels liable to cause explosions are not taken on board the submarine at ail.
  - Fig. 186 is a side élévation of the engine, and fig. 187 a section through the engine-room of a submarine.
  - Fig. 188 illustrâtes a paraffin boat-engine built by the Deutz Gasmotor-enfabrik.
  - Figs. 189 to 191 illustrate a paraffin boat-engine on tlic Gardner system, as built by Bieberstein & Goedicke, Hamburg.
  - According to their size, the engines run at 500 to 800 révolutions per minute. Tliey work with cut-out governing, but the exhaust valve is not
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- - S H IP, BOAT, AND AIKSHIP ENGINES.
  - 171
  - held up, the charge inlet valve, on the other hand, being kept closed. In addition to the positively controlled charge valve, these engines are fitted with a second antoinatic inlet valve, through which air only is drawn in. Air also enters the cylinders through this valve when the charge inlet valve is closed by the governor. Warm water drops on to the
  - Fig. 189.—Gardner one-cylinder boat engine, using paraflin.
  - latter valve, and is removed in the form of steam and water-spray by the inrushing air ; this lowers tlie internai température and enables a higher compression to be used.
  - The working of the engine is thus rendered more economical ; it runs also more smootlily, and inside cleaning is but seldom required. The fuel-evapor-ating cliamber is kept heated by a lamp.
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- - Fig. 190.—Gardner two-cylinder boat engine, using paraffin (longitudinal section)
  - O IL MOTOKS.
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- - SHIP, BOAT, AND A1RSHIP ENGINES.
  - 173
  - Boat-engines built by Heinrich Kàmper, Berlin-Mariendorf.
  - (Figs. 192 and 193.)
  - These engines work with petrol, alcohol, and paraiiin. The fuel-tank is placed on a lower level than the carburettor, and is not under pressure. A
  - Fig. 191.—Gardncr two-cylinder boat angine, using parafiin (cross-section).
  - pump delivers the fuel into a small overfiow tank, from wliich tliat not utilised flows back to the main tank. Low-tension magneto-electric ignition is used.
  - In ail the engines, the inlet valve is positively controlled. lîotli the ex-haust and inlet valves are made of nickel steel, and cannot therefore become rusty. The water-jacketed spaces are provided with a cover for cleaning-out purposes. In the engines having several cylinders, the exhaust pipe is water-cooled.
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- - 174
  - OIL MOTOES
  - Fig. 192.—The Kamper one-cylinder boat engine.
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- - SHIP, BOAT, AND AIRSHIP ENGINES.
  - 175
  - Details of Boat and Winch-Driving Engines, built by Heinrich Ramper, Berlin-Mariendorf.
  - Size..........................
  - Number of cylinders .
  - Brake h.-p. at normal speed Normal speed : revs. per min. .
  - Price of engine, including magnéto ignition, complété central lulirication, cooling pump, starting liandle, fuel-tank for ten liours’ running and silencer........................................£ s.
  - Price of transmission gear, on frame, witli lever and couplings...................................£ s.
  - Price of sliaft in two parts (13 ft. long) witli inter-mediate bearing and propeller . . £ s.
  - Price of stem tube, up to 39 ins. in length £ s.
  - Price of proteetive cover .... £ ft.
  - Total price of engine complété . . £ s.
  - Approximate weiglit in ll)s.
  - Engine................................
  - Transmission gear.....................
  - Foundation frames.....................
  - Sliaft in two parts...................
  - Intermediate bearing..................
  - Propeller.............................
  - Stern tube............................
  - Proteetive cover......................
  - Total
  - S SD SF S DD SG SFF
  - 1 2 2 4 3 4
  - 6-5 8 13 16 19 26
  - 650 700 550 700 550 550
  - 90 0 112 10 155 0 207 10 250 0 300 0
  - 47 10 47 10 60 0 60 0 75 0 75 0
  - 7 10 7 10 11 0 11 0 15 0 15 0
  - 3 5 3 5 4 0 4 0 5 0 5 0
  - 10 0 10 0 12 10 12 10 15 0 15 0
  - 158 5 180 15 242 10 295 0 360 0 410 0
  - 705 552 950 730 1210 1370
  - 210 210 310 310 375 375
  - 165 99 128 137 188 188
  - 57 67 77 77 99 99
  - 18 18 18 18 27 27
  - 13 13 22 22 33 33
  - 22 22 24 24 27 27
  - 177 150 199 199 232 253
  - 1367 1121 1728 1517 2191 2372
  - Boat-engines of various types, built by John I. Thornycroft & Co. Ld., Chiswick, Southampton and Basingstoke.
  - (Tliese are illustrated in Figs. 194 to 197.)
  - Fig. 194.—Thornycroft boat engine.
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Airship Engines.
  - The success which has attended the manufacture of dirigible airships in
  - Fig. 195.—Thovnycroft boat engine.
  - Fig. 196.—Thornycroft boat engine.
  - various countries is largely due to the improvements which hâve been made in the construction of internai combustion engines of great power combined
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- - SHIP, BOAT, AND AIRSHIP ENGINES.
  - 177
  - with lightness of weight. The power required for propelling airships and rendering them steerable with safety, can only be determined by experiments.
  - Fig. 197.—Tliornycroft boat engine.
  - Formerly where trials were carried out with 5 or 10 h.-p., 50 to 100 h.-p. engines are now available. Count Zeppelin uses for his airship—with which, after long trials, he has obtained excellent results, attaining speeds up to thirty miles per hour—two engines of 110 h.-p. each.
  - As stated in the eighth chapter, when dealing with the development of cycle engines, tliere is still a possibility of reducing the weight of the engines,
  - Fig. 198.—Korting airship engine of 1887.
  - by using new kinds of fuel and running on the two-cycle System. Owing to the great dangers which the use of petrol for airships entails, it is absolutely necessary to look for fuels which will be less likely to cause the
  - 12
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- - 178
  - OIL MOTOBS.
  - airship to catch fire, while being at the same time suitable for the airship engines.
  - But little publicity has been given to the attempts made in former times in regard to the construction of engines for airships. The firm of Gebr. Korting, Hanover, built an airship in 1887, supplied to the State Airship Department in Berlin. In order to avoid ail danger of fire, this engine was sup-
  - Fi«. 199.—100 h.-p. “ Antoinette ” engine, carricd by a man.
  - plied with lighting gas which was carried in a separate balloon ; ignition was by battery on a System similar to the sparking plug ignition of the présent day. Owing to the slow speed at which combustion engines then ran, and to the absence of light metals, tins engine was too heavy to give good results. It is illustrated in fig, 198.
  - The manufacturers who hâve given most attention to the construction of airship engines are the Daimler Motorengesellschaft and the Société “ Antoinette,” Paris.
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- - SHIP, BOAT, AND AIRSHIP ENGINES.
  - 179
  - Figs. 199 and 200 show a 100 li.-p. engine built by the Société “ Antoinette,” which weighs only a little over 1 kg. (2'2 lbs.) per horse-power.
  - Fig. 200.—Sixteen-cylinder 100 li.-p. engine, built by the Société “ Antoinette.”
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- - CHAPTER X.
  - ROAD AND RAIL VEHICLES, AND AIRSHIPS, DRIVEN BY INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.
  - As already stated, internai combustion engines cannot start outomatically, and cannot be revcrsed by simple means ; the power tliey develop also falls ofF exceedingly rapidly and at a rate ont of ail proportion to any réduction of speed. To these features are due several of the difficulties encountered in 1 lie construction of motor vehieles, and in conséquence the drive is not direct on to the wheels, but the power is transmitted to tlieni through gears and clutches. A s team locomotive starts running under the pressure of the steam ; it commences to run slowly, but its speed will gradually increase. Sueh is not the case with the internai combustion engine. These engines even lack the means to enable them to commence running, and extraneous power has to be applied in order to start the fuel and air-supply and compression ; it is only then, if ail works well, that they can commence working. Unlike a steam engine, an internai combustion engine cannot hâve the full load tlirown on to it at once, but must be started up and allowcd to acquire a certain speed before it will develop any appréciable amount of power.
  - This lack of power at starting in the case of internai combustion engines is of especial disadvantage, for it is just when a vehicle is being set in motion and the inertia is being overcome, that a greater amount of power is needed thaii is required for maintaining an acquired speed. In the design and construction of road and rail vehieles for traction by internai combustion engines due account must be taken of these features. The engine requires a starting device, this being usually either a hand-çrank or some compressed-air arrangement. The transmission between the engine and the wheel must not be of a rigid type, but should be easily removed and elastic. Roth forward and backward running and different speeds must be provided for. In cases where two driving wheels are mounted on the same axle, a differential gear is required to allow of turning by driving one wheel faster than the other.
  - / The first cycle driven by a combustion engine was that illustrated in figs. 201 and 202, built by Daimler; this motor cycle was brought out in the early ’eighties.
  - Daimler followed this up by bringing out, in 1886, the first motor-cai’, illustrated in figs. 203 and 204. In this, the engine was mounted in the space
  - 180
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- - Vehicles and airships deiyen by internal combustion engines. 181
  - between the two axles ; power was transmitted by means of two belt,s and an intermediate shaft and gears. Starting was effected by means of a friction coupling on the engine shaft.
  - At* the same time as Daimler had succeeded with bis motor-car, C. Benz, of Mannheim, was also successful ; he brought out, also in 1886, a car which is shown in figs. 205 and 206. The engine flywheel, in this car, was horizontal, and power was transmitted by bevel gear and pulley to an intermediate belt pulley, and from this to the driving wheels through chains. The car had only one steering wheel. This first Benz car is still iit for service.
  - The Benz works then built in 1888 a new type of car, in which, however,
  - they retained practically the same
  - , -ii- 1*1*1 i . i Fig. 201.—The first Daimler motor cycle,
  - mechamcal devices; they exlubited tins
  - at the time in Munich, and it was the first road-car driven by a petrol engine ever shown at an exhibition.
  - Fig. 202.—Tlie first Daimler motor cycle (side élévation).
  - A, Cranlc cliamber and working cylinder ; B, Saddle ; C, Carburettor ; F, Silenccr ; , Exhaust pipe ; M, N, Belt pulleys ; K, Belt tiglitening jockey pulley ; H, Hand lever l’or belt tiglitening jockey pulley ; o, p, Brake which Works by slackening the belt ; G, Handle-bar.
  - This car travelled at a speed of 16 kms. (about 10 miles) an liour, and could travel on gradients of 6 in 100 (one in 16’6).
  - Since those earlier days, both the Benz works and the Daimler-Motoren-
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- - 182
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - gesellsclnift hâve been untiring in their efforts to further the development
  - of automobile construction, and hâve met with very good success. After their first cars, the Benz works brought out a type of car whicli was found to be most serviceable and durable, several of which are even now quite fit for service.
  - The Benz car built in 1891 is shown in figs. 207 to 209. As vvill be seen, the belt drive is rctained; steer-ing vvheels pivoted on the axle were used for the first time in this automobile.
  - Recent Automobiles.
  - It does not fall within the scope of this publication to describe in detail the varions types of châssis and gear ; these will only be considered so far as is necessary to convey a clear general understanding of the subject.
  - F rom the opening remarks of the présent chapter dealing with the
  - Fig. 203.—The lirst Daimler car, 1886.
  - Fig. 204.—The first Daimler car, 1886 (siile élévation),
  - A, Engine ; b, c, Belt pulleys on the motor shaft ; e,f, Belt pulloys on the intermediate sliaft ; g, Intermediate shaft ; le, Steering wlieel ; ni, i, Pivoted steering frame.
  - characteristic features of the internai combustion engines, it will be évident that the construction of really serviceable châssis and gear, likely to give
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- - VEHICLES AND AIRSHIPS DRIVEN BY INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 183
  - thorough satisfaction in service, is no easy matter. The modéra types of motor-car construction are the resuit of constant labour and the outlay of vast sums of money during the last ten years.
  - No lengthy considération of the development of power-driven vehicles is necessary for it to be recognised that the vibrations and shocks on the
  - automobile châssis, arising from iron-tyred wlxeels, even at the slow speeds that were practicable in the earlier days, must hâve had a very detrimental effect on ail the parts of the automobile frame and of the engine itself. The spring suspensions until then used for passenger vehicles were not in the least suitable for power-propelled cars. The numerous shocks due to the small and great unevennesses of the road surface could only be properly
- p.183 - vue 201/354
- - Fig. 206.—The first Benz motor-car, 1886 (rear view)
  - 184 OIL MOTOlîS
- p.184 - vue 202/354
- - VEHICLES AND AIltSHIPS DEIVEN BY INTEllNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 185
  - counteracted by the use on the wheels of tyres of great elasticity ; the sliock must be neutralised at tlie very point of origin. In spite of ail the attempts made in this direction, nothing lias so far been found more suitable than the india-rubber pneumatic tube such as is used on bicycles. It is only by the use of pneumatic tyres that travelling at the high speeds now possible is really fea3ible, and the desire for fast travelling is so great that people are willing to pay more for lyre expenses than for the power fur propelling the car. The cost of rubber exceeds that of the fuel.
  - The need for satisfactory steering arrangements increased with the higher
  - Fig. 207.—View of Benz automobile of 1891, seating thrceor four pcrsons. 5 li.-p. engine ; weiglit, 15 cwts. 1 qr. ; cost, £225.
  - speeds. The old steering device, in whicli the front axle and wheels t-urned on a centre, required a considérable amount of power and was slow in action. It was therefore necessary to modify this in some way, and this was doue by pivoting the front wheels at the ends of the axle, acting on them directly and swivelling them in the direction of travel. The necessity of working the back wheels with some compensating gear, the so-called differential gear, has already been alluded to.
  - For transmitting the power to the driving wheels, for changing the speed and for backward travelling, toothed gears running in oil are used.
  - As it is not advisable to tlirow the pinions in and out of gear, and to change speed while tliey are being driven by the engine, the clutch between
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- - 186
  - OIL MOTOJÎS.
  - Fig. 208.—Benz automobile of 1891 (side élévation).
  - Fig. 209. — Benz automobile of 1891 (plan).
  - A, Working cylinder ; 1), Carburettor ; E, Petrol tank ; F1, Induction sparking coil ; L, Silencer ; Cl G, Cooling water tank ; O, K, Expansion cliamber for cooling watef ; II, Belt for slow speed ; II', Belt for fast speed ; a and b, Steering wheel and liandle ; c, d, Belt shifting device ; c, lland control of throttle valve ; M, M', Brake lever pedals.
- p.186 - vue 204/354
- - I »
  - Figs. 210 and 211.—Châssis of the six-cylinder automobile “ Hexe ” type, built by Achenbach & Co., Hamburg.
  - YEHICLES AND AIRSHIPS DRIVEN BY 1NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 187
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- - 188
  - 01L MOTOltS.
  - the latter and the gearing is in frequent use and bas to be made specially light and easy of operation.
  - The suspension of the châssis on the axles bas to be such that no detri-mentai effect whatever on the transmission gear will be caused by the frequent relative rnovement of these parts. This is provided for by the use of slightly slack chains for heavy cars, and of a Cardan shaft in lighter vehicles.
  - Little attention was paid at first to the cooling of the working cylinders of automobiles. The first powcr-propelled cars were equipped with a “ ribbed cooling device ” of the type used in stationary engines. The weight of the larger quantifies of cooling water at first carried, especially in the case of the larger engines, was very considérable, and endeavours to reduce it led to the manufacture of fiat-tube radiators which hâve now been in general use for the last five or six years. With these radiators, the water is circulated through the cylinder jaeket, and, by means of a small rotary pump, through a large number of fiat tubes having a large cooling surface, by which means a great cooling effect is obtained with a very small quantity of water.
  - Figs. 210 and 211 illustrate the châssis and gear of an automobile of the “ Hexe type” built by Achenbach & Co., Hamburg ; these drawings show the manner in which the various parts forming a modem car are arranged. The radiator is placed directly over the front axle ; behind this is the fan which increases the cooling effect. Then cornes the six-cylinder engine, the clutch, and the gear, the latter running in oil. To this is coupled the inclined Cardan shaft, and lastly on the rear driving axle the differential gear. The automobile complété is illustrated in view, fig. 212.
  - In figs. 213 to 217 are sliown the châssis, gear, and different types of “ Mercedes Simplex ” automobiles built by the Daimler-Motorengesellschaft ; and also various other types of cars.
  - Figs. 218 to 220 illustrate the châssis and gear, and various cars of the “Bayard” type, built by A. Clément, Paris.
  - In figs. 221 and 223 are shown the châssis, gear, and carriage body of a four-cylinder automobile built by the Nürnberger Motorfahrzeugfabrik “ Union,” Ltd. The gear of this automobile does not take the form of toothed wlieel transmission, but is of the friction type. By shifting the friction wheel, any speed can be obtained up to 70 kms. (43-5 miles) per hour, as well as running on the reverse. There are no sliocks on starting, nor in changing over from one speed to another. With friction gear, gradients up to 30 per cent. (1 in 3-3) can be taken easily.
  - Figs. 224 and 225 illustrate a three-wheeled motor-car built for two or tlirco persons by the Maschinenfabrik “Cyklon,” ltummelsburg, near Berlin. The drive is arrauged on to the front axle, a fiat belt and a cliain being used ; the front axle is also the steering axle. The engine is fitted to the fork, and turns with the steering.
  - As the front axle is the driving axle, the risk of skidding at the rear is abolished. The engine is of 3'5 h.-p., and speeds up to 35 kms. (21*7 miles) per hour can be attained.
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- - zo
  - O
  - Fig. 213.—Châssis and gear of the Daimler-Motorengesellschaft, Untertiirkheim, near Stuttgart.
  - OIL MOTORS.
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- - Fig. 214.—View of an 18 h.-p. motor car “ Mercédès Simplex,” built by the Daimler-Motorengesellscliaft (supplied to H.M. King Edward),
  - VEHIOLES AND AIRSIIIBS DH 1 VE N BY INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 191
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- - Fig. 215.—12 h.-p. motor omnibus, built by the Daimler-Motorengesellseliafx.
  - OIL MOTORS
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- - •o
  - VEIIICLES ANI) AIRSIIIPS DlîIYEN BY INTERNAI, COMBUSTION ENGINES.
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- - Fig. 217.—16 h.-p. lorry, built by the Daimler-Motorengesellschaft. To carry 5 tons.
  - 194 OIL MOTORS
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  - Fig. 218.—Châssis of'a “ Bayard ” 14/18 h.-]>. automobile.
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  - 01L MOTOlîS,
  - four-cylinder ‘‘ Maurer-Uuion ” automobile.
  - Fig. 222.—G to 8 b.-p. “ Maurer-Union ” automobile for doctors’ use. Price, £215 to £230.
  - Fui. 223.—12 to 22 li.-p. four-cylinder “ Maurer-Union ” automobile. Price, £750.
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  - 1
  - Fig. 224.—“ Cyklonette” delivery car, built by the Mascliinenfabrik “ Cyklon,”
  - Rummelsburg. near Berlin.
  - Fig. 225.—“Cyklonette” with liood, scating two or three persons. Price, £137, 10s. Lengtli, 8 ft. 9 in.; widtb, 4 ft. 8 iu.; heiglit, 4 ft. 7 in. Distance between rear wliecls at tread, 4 l't. 2 in. ; weight, 5 cwt.
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  - OÏL MOTORS.
  - Fig. 226 shows a motor-tricycle with détachable side-seat, built by the Neckarsulmer Fahrradwerke-A.-G., Neckarsulm. The engine has two cylinders, and develops 5 h.-p. The cycle is fitted with back-pedal brake, double trans-
  - mission, and free wheel. Fans eau be fitted also to increase cooling of the cylinder.
  - A 2| h.-p. motor-cycle by the Wanderer-Fahrradwerke, Schonau, near Chemnitz, is illustrated in fig. 227. The back-wheel can run free, and is pro-vided with back-pedalling brake.
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  - Fig. 228 illustrâtes the motor-cycle built by H. et A. Dufaux & Co., Geneva, Switzerland, of the “ Motosacocbe ” type. The engine is so designed that it may be fitted to an ordinary bicycle fraine. The h.-p. engine costs <£19, 15s.
  - Illustrated in figs. 229 and 230 is the tractor already referred to, built by Lieutenant Troost for his undertaking in South-West Africa. Owing to the tracks being largely through sand in that part of the world, the ordinary power wagons cannot be used, and Lieutenant Troost bas met the case by
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- - 200
  - OÏL MOTORS.
  - providing his tractor with a strong wire rope winch. In the more difficult parts the car travels forward alone, and the wire rope is paid out completely.
  - Fiu. 228.—Bicycle fitted witli a lj h.-p. “ Motosacoche” engine.
  - l
  - 5
  - Fig. 229.—Troost tractor.
  - 1, Driving whecl ; 2, Chain wheel ; 3, Driving belt pulley ; 4, Driving boit ; 5, Steering.
  - The car is then scotched, and it hauts the traders by wiuding the rope back on to the drtim.
  - The design of this car differs entirely from the ordinary power wagons. Extrême simplicity and safe working are the main features of this tlioroughly
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  - practical wagon. Ail the repairs that are likely to be required can be eiïected by the appliances with whieh it is provided. In order to prevent skidding, it is arranged something like a giant tri-car. The vvide rear wheel, 7 ft. 7 in. in diameter, acts as the driver; steering is performed with the front wheels, which are fitted with swivelling axles.
  - Power is supplied by the 70 h.-p. Swiderski engine above rcferred to, transmitted to the tootlied wheel gearing at the back by a belt. The large driving wheel is drivcn from the tootlied wheel gearing by a chain. The wire rope drurn is fixed to the driving wheel ; when it is necessary to use the druni,
  - 14 13
  - 1, Engine; 2, Flywheel ; 3, Fuel régulation; 4, Lover fur clianging gear ; f>, Rod for cliange gear ; 6, Chain wheel ; 7, Roller hearing for power wlieel ; 8, Chain tightening (levice ; 9, Gear; 10, Ratchet rod; 11, Coupling ; 12, Driving belt pulley ; 13, Wire rope druni ; 14, Driving wheel.
  - the car frame is jacked up and the driving wheel revolves with the drum, acting as a fly wheel. Additional gears and couplings which would otherwise be necessary for operating the drurn, are thus obviated.
  - Rail Vehicles driven by Internai Combustion Engines.
  - As bas been already stated, the first petrol engine built by the Maschinenbau-Aktiengesellschaft vorm. G. EgestorfF, in 1879, was also at once used for driving a railway vehicle. This is illustrated in fig. 231.
  - Daimler then brought out in 1887 a rail car, provided with a high speed petrol engine, which worked for a long period the passenger trafïic between the Wilhelmsplatz and the Kursaal, Cannstatt. The same car was also used during the Bremen Exhibition of 1890.
  - This Daimler “Summer car” is shown in lig. 232. As will be seen, it
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  - O IL MOTORS.
  - consists of two seats oarried on wheels ; the 2 h.-p. ongine is fitted in a casing at the baclc. The driver sits at the back on a saddle.
  - Fig, 231.—First rail vehicle driven by a petrol engine, built in 1880.
  - a, b, Toothcd pinion gears ; c, d, Uncrossed and crossed belts for forward and backward running ; e, Handle for shifting tlie belts ; h, Foot-brake ; g, Sileucer.
  - Fig. 232.—The Daimler “ summer car,” 1887.
  - The power is transmitted to the axle by two sets of toothed gear for 7 and
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  - 15 kms. (4’35 and 9*35 miles) speeds. No provision was made for reversing. The gauge was 600 mm. (23{j in).
  - Fig. 233. —The Daimler motor-driven trolley.
  - Fig. 234.- -The Daimler motor-driven railway carnage.
  - Otiier rail cars of that date arc illustrated in fig. 233, wliich shows a trolley, and in fig. 234, this latter being a view of a motor-driven railway carriage
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  - 01L MOTOKS.
  - built for Fr. Krupp, for service between the firing ground and the township of Meppen.
  - Recent Locomotives.
  - Locomotives driven by high-speed engines hâve not met with much success. Engines working at a more moderate speed, capable of running duriug longer periods, of greater economy and safety in working, were more suitable to this class of vehicles, as they bave also proved in factory driving. The Gasmotoren-fabrik Deutz and the Motorenfabrik Oberursel are among the few German firms whose nam es are connected with the construction of locomotives fitted with internai combustion engines. The peculiar features of these engines, and their présent development, hâve led to the building of locomotives of this type for light traffîc only, and not for main Unes.
  - They are now used mainly in miriing, in contractons works, in the exploitation of forests, for tunnel and canal construction, in brick works, sugar works, bridge building, etc.
  - The petrol or benzol consomption of the locomotives, according to the conditions of track and trahie, amounts to 0‘05 to 0 09 kg. per km. (*17 to *29 lb.) per mile run.
  - Figs. 235 to 239 show various locomotives of this description built by the Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz and the Aktiengesellschaft Oberursel.
  - Boats Fitted with Internai Combustion Engines.
  - The first boat tobe driven by a petrol engine was that illustrated in fig. 240, built by Daimler in 1886. Fig. 241 shows the internai arrangement of a Daimler boat built in tlie early ’nineties in America. The boat is fitted with the two-cylinder engine described in the ninth chapter.
  - Recent Motor-boats.
  - The fact that internai combustion engines do not start automatioally, and the difficulty of reversing, lias always been a hindrance to the adoption of these engines to motor-driven boats ; the lack of a simple and cheap means of reversing lias always formed a great impediment to the development of motor-boats.
  - In bis first boat, Daimler used a friction-driven gear for running astern. Later builders turned their attention to the device known as the “Sail propeller,” which was used in former times in sailing ships. In this device the propeller blades were made to swivel in the boss, being worked by means of a rod placed in the hollow propeller shaft. Wlien tbere was a good wind, the sails were used for driving the ship, the propeller ceased working, and its blades were so placed that they offered the least résistance to the movement of the vessel.
  - In adapting this device to motor-boats, it was only necessary to increase the shifting of the blades in the boss in order to make the boat travel astern wliile the engine continued to run in the same direction as when moving ahead.
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  - In the early ’nineties tliis réversible propeller had been improved to such an extent that it vvas suitable for the propulsion of boats ; the Firm Karl Meissner, Hamburg, lias given especial attention to the manufacture of this type of propeller.
  - lt was only quite recently, witli the construction of still larger craft—full-sized ships, in fact—fitted with internai combustion engines, that the efficiency and the reversibility of this type of propeller were found to be unsatisfactory. For large powers, intermediate transmission gear is quite out of the question
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  - 01L MOTORS.
  - Fig. 236.—Shunting locomotive, equipped witli a 60 h.-p. engine, built by the Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz.
  - Fig. 237.—Mining locomotive, equipped witli a 32 h.-p.engine, built by tlie Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz.
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  - Fig. 238. — Shunting locomotive, equipped witli ail aleoliol-petrol engine, built by tlie
  - Motorenfabrik Oberursel.
  - Fig. 239.—Mining locomotive in service at tlie Bergbau-Aktiengesellscliaft Friedrichssegen,
  - Friedriclissegen, Lalm.
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  - OIL MOTOES.
  - Fig. 240.—The first Daimler motor-hoat, built in 1886.
  - Fig. 241.—Arrangement ot’a Daimler boat, built in America in 1S90.
  - W, Seat for the steersman ; V, Steering lever ; U, Lever for reversing tbe propeller ;
  - H, Carburettor lever.
  - Ail the necessary levers and handles for controlling the engine are within easy reach of the steersman.
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  - Also in large sizes the reversing of the propeller lias its disadvantages. Tlie frictional résistance which lias to be overcome in operating the blades when
  - ! I
  - Fig. 242.—The Daimler friction gear for motor-boats.
  - For running ustern, the elutcli is drawn hack from the flywlieel, and at the same time the friction dise K is pressed by a hand lever against the conical surface of the dise m and of the flywlieel.
  - under the full working pressure, requires sucli an aniount of power tliat reversing cannot be elfected quickly enough by liand. As still another
  - Figs. 243 and 244.—Réversible propeller manufactured by the Motorenfabrik Grob & Co., Leipzig.
  - considération, it may be stated tliat the sliocks caused by early ignition and by the hit and miss governing, may hâve a very detrimental effect on the toothed gear and on the blades of the réversible propeller, silice the flywheels
  - 14
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - with wliich the engines can be fitted are only light. In many instances, tlie remarkable cases of the fracture of teeth and the loss of propeller blades, hâve been principally due to these shocks.
  - Àll these disadvantages hâve resulted in active endeavours in the direction of making internai combustion engines as effective as steam engines, in regard to running and reversi-bility, while using propellers with fixed blades such as are used with steam propulsion, the craft being the whole time completely under controh. Boat-engines are now built of about 100 h.-p. and upwards, provided with compressed-air start-ing and reversing devices. Messrs Gebr. Sulzer,, Wintertlmr, build, for example, two-cycle Dieseli engines for driving torpédo boats, wliich are fittedi with such devices; the Korting engines for submarines, and also the “Antoinette” engines, are fitted with similar arrangements. Gunboats are built in Ilussia propelled by four-cycie Diesel engines. In these, the power of the engine is not transmitted direct to the propeller shaft,, but to an electric dynamo supplying an electric motor driving the propeller shaft. The engine and dynamo act as an ordinary generating set,, and the current is supplied to the electric motor.. The latter can drive the propeller shaft as desired! in either direction in the usual way. Attempts-were made several years ago to build electric-. locomotives and motor-cars on this principle ; but„ quite apart from the heavy first cost, the losses-in actual running were so great, that the smalli advautage gained in the shape of greater flexi-bility in working, was purchased at far too great an expense ; attempts hâve, however, lately beeni made to revive tliis System.
  - Fig. 242 illustrâtes the friction gear used by Daimler in liis first boat ; figs. 243 and 244 the réversible propeller as introduced in the late ’nineties. by the Motorenfabrik Grob & Co., Leipzig; andi fig. 245 a reversing device. A réversible propeller of the latest type for larger boats, made by Karl! Meissner, Ilamburg, is shown in fig. 246, and Meissner motor-boats in figs.. 252 to 256.
  - In figs. 247 and 248 are shown two reversing gears, constructed by Messrs Bieberstein A Godicke, Hamburg, and Heinrich Kamper, Berlin-
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  - Mariendorf. Figs. 249 to 251 show an overhanging propeller made by the Cudell-Motoren-Gesellschaft, Ltd., Berlin, !N\, for small craft. The engine
  - propeller shaft, and propeller, form a self-contained apparatus pivoted at the stem of the boat ; the propeller shaft can be lowered, raised, and inoved sideways at will. The device can also be fixed at any desired height.
  - Y////////,
  - Fig. 246. — Hevcrsihle propeller manufactured by Karl Meissncr, Harnburg, for large boats.
  - Fig. 247.—Transmission goar for sliip propellers, built by Bieberstein k Godicke, Haniburg.
  - Figs. 257 and 258 are views of a Thornycroft racing motor-boat, and of a Bieberstein & Godicke motor-boat for passenger trahie.
  - Figs. 259 and 260 show the engine-room of a passenger and cargo sliip
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - containing three Diesel engincs, developing together 3000 h.-p., with electrio transmission to the propeller shaft.
  - Fie. 248 —Transmission geav for sliip propellers, built by Ileinrich Kiimpcr,
  - Berlin Maricndorf.
  - Fig. 249.—2'5 li.-p. motor-driven propeller for small bouts and yachts, built by the Cudell-Motoren-Gesellschaft, Ltd., Berlin, N.
  - In figs. 261 and 262 is illustrated a gunboat belonging to the liussian Navy, fitted with two Diesel engines anl with electrie transmission to the propeller shaft.
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  - Airship Engines.
  - The first attempts at construction of dirigible balloons were made in France by Renard, who, in thé early ’eighties, succeeded in manufacturing a
  - Fig. 250.—2 li.-p. motor drivcn propeller, built by the Ciwlell-Motoren-Gesellscliaft, Ltd.,
  - Berlin, N.
  - balloon which was driven by a gas cngine at a speed sufficient to enable it to be steered. Shortly afterwards, experiments were also carried out in Germany,
  - Fig. 251. —Bout equipped witli the Cudell propelling device.
  - but these did not prove successful. A balloon which at that time made its first ascent from the Tempelhof, near Berlin, caught lire in the air, and its occupants were killed.
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - h'io. 253
  - Fig. 254
  - Figs. 252 to 254.—Motor-boats built by Karl Meissner, Hamburg.
  - Fig. 255.—Longitudinal section of a Karl Meissner niotor-boat.
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  - Fig. 256.—Yiew of a Karl Meissner motor-bcfat.
  - Fig. 257. —Racing raotor-boat, built by Messrs Jobn J. Thornycroft & Co., London,
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- - *7' *• '
  - 'Sr -
  - I io. -58.—JXotor-boat built hv -n
  - ‘ a»b=«ta'n 4 Godicte, Hambur.
  - O*
  - : »• : • < 4 < : Hv-
  - V-'-v ^ •• Vw* V « •
  - * Vv
  - to
  - >-—l
  - Ci
  - 01L MOTORS
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  - Fig. 260.
  - Figs. 209 and 260.—Engine-room of a passenger and cargo ship, with tliree four-cylinder Diesel engines of 3000 h.-p. in the aggregate, witli electric transmission to the pro-peller sliaft.
  - Cylinder diamoter, 27'5 in.; stroke, 30‘3 in.; speed, 100 revs. per minute ; weight of eacli engine, 110 tons ; normal power of eacli electric motor, 670 h.-j>. ; weiglit of each electric set, 60 tons ; weiglit of an electro-magnetic clutcli coupling, 3 tons ; weight of one propeller with shaft, 10 tons ; total weiglit of meclianieal eipiipinent, 064 tous ; weight of equipment per horse-power developed, 188 kg. (414 lbs.).
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  - OIL MOTOlîS.
  - Otto Lilienthal then experimented with an apparatus whicli had no gas balloon, but with it he endeavoured to secure a motion similar to the flight of birds. He succeeded so far, that when he dropped with his machine from a height he was able to cover the distance of several hundred yards. But Lilienthal also met his death in the course of one of his experiments.
  - In the meantime the petrol motor had corne to the front, and had been so greatly improved that fresh hopes could be entertained of building steerable balloons. For the older type of balloon s, the spherical shape was at once the
  - Fig. 261.
  - A
  - Figs. 261 and 262.—Russian gunboat, with Diesel engines and electric transmission to the propeller sliaft.
  - Extrême length, 220 ft. 6 in.; breadtli amidships, 37 ft. ; dranght, 10 ft. 9 in.; displacement, 1316 tons; maximum spced, 13 knots ; power developed, 1400 li.-p.; fuel consumption per horse-power liour, 0"200 kg. (-440 lb.) ; fuel capacity, 155 tons.
  - A, 120 mm. and 75 mm. gun ammunition ; B, Biscuit stores ; C, Crude petroleum tanks ; D, Gun spare parts ; E, Deck stores ; F, Steering room ; G, Provisions ; H, Officers’ quarters ; J, Captain’s cabin ; K, Engines ; L, Engine spare parts ; M, Dynamo room.
  - most simple and the most correct, for the greatest possible quantity of gas could be enclosed with the lcast possible surface. But with the new conditions imposed by the desire for dirigibility, this shape had to be abandoned, and a cylindrical shape with pointed ends adopted. The design up to that time followed in the construction of the car had also to be modified to meet the new conditions, and to take the engine. The balloon netting had also to be replaced by rigid connections, so that the car and the balloon should act together.
  - The efforts made in these directions hâve resulted in the production of the
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  - various types of airships now available. In the Zeppelin rigid System, the balloon body is built of a rigid aluminium-bronze frame, on which the gas-tight canvas is spread. Ail parts—the car, the propellers, the vertical and horizontal steering gear—are fitted to the bars forming the frame. It is évident that an airship of this rigid type can only be transported over land under great difficulties, and cannot descend on solid ground without previous préparation. For these reasons Zeppelin has built bis airship, from the time he commenced, in a floating shed, and always starts his journeys from this
  - Fig. 263.—Dirigible airship of Count von Zeppelin (rigid System).
  - shed. Being dépendent in this way upon a large expanse of water, which must be as calm as possible, for aligliting, is one of the great disadvantages of the rigid System. For this reason, other makers, both German and French, hâve selected a less rigid type ; these hâve retained the collapsible balloon cover, giving it the necessary rigidity by increasing the gas pressure. The gas bag, contrary to the practice in the older type of balloon, must be com-pletely closed in the case of steerable airships. The car is made long and
  - Fig. 264.—Dirigible airship “ La Ville de Paris ” (semi-rigid System).
  - rigid ; this carries the engines, and is fitted with the gear and propelling devices. Instead of the netting, the balloon is surrounded by wide canvas bands.
  - Silice the gas in the balloon expands or contracts by of its volume for each degree centigrade différence in température, the gas pressure inside the balloon inevitably rises or falls, quickly following the variations in température, and the cover may tlius easily be subjccted to too high a pressure. In the older type, the pressure was regulated automatically through the bottom opening. In the closed balloon s, internai air-sacks or ballonets are resorted
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- - 220
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - to, fitted with an exterior pendant hose-pipe. The ballon et can be inflated through this pipe by a fan, and kept in an inflated state.
  - Fig. 263 shows the Zeppelin rigid airship, and fig. 264 the semi-rigid French airship “La Ville de Paris.”
  - Fig. 265.—Locomobilc with belt transmission, built by the Gasmotorenf'abrik Deutz.
  - Portable Engines.
  - The internai combustion motor lias been developed to a very considérable extent in the form of portable engines. The fuel used in such cases is either crude benzol, “ ergin,” or paraffin. Petrol, owitig to its comparatively liigli cost and the risk of fîre that accompanies its use, is but little omployed. As in the case of locomotives, stationary slow-speed engines are mostly used for locomobiles. In the latter, évaporation cooling is usually employed,
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  - Fig. 2(37.—2 to 6 h.-p. lncomobile, built by the Mo toron fabrik “ Obcrursel.”
  - Price £118 to £190.
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- - 222
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - though surface and air cooling, to which référencé will be made further on, are also used. In order that the portable engines may be utilised for various
  - machines running at a liigh speed, they are as a rule pruvided witli belt transmission gear.
  - Figs. 265 to 272 show a number of portable engines built by varions manufacturers.
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  - Fig. 270.— Locomobile built by Tangyes, Ltd., Birmingham.
- p.223 - vue 241/354
- - 224
  - OIL MOTORS
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  - Motor-Driven Water- and Air-Pumps.
  - Internai combustion engines liave also been largely employed for driving pumping plants for supplying water to srnall towns, railway watering stations,
  - Fig. 272.—Locomobile built by tlie Maschincnbau A. G., vorni. Pli. Swiderski, Leipzig.
  - agricultural districts, kitchen gardens, and so forth. The larger pumps are driven by belting, gears, or cliains ; in small installations, tlie engine and pump are direct coupled. Several applications are sliown in figs. 273 to 284. Internai combustion engines are also put to many otlier uses. They are
  - Fig. 273.—Engine-driven watenvork installation, built by tlie Gcbr. Kiirting Co.,
  - Kürtingsdorl'-IIanover.
  - employed, for instance, in building construction, for operating fire-engines, driving portable dynamos, ploughs, turntables, traversera, etc. Several examples of sucli applications are illustrated in figs. 285 to 292.
  - 15
- p.225 - vue 243/354
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Fig. 274.—The Swidcrski engine-driven pump.
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  - Figs. ‘275 and 276.— Korting engine-driven pumps.
  - Figs. 277 and 278.—Engine-driven pumps, built by tlie Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz,
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- - 228
  - OlL MOTOliS.
  - Fig. 279.
  - (u&yj.-iJi/MZJAUJU'U.HaS-t. Cl. '-CUCS^.
  - «94.14 S:
  - Figs. 279 and 280.—Pumps built by tbe Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz.
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  - Fig. 282.—Pump built by Tangyes, Ltd., Birmingham.
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- - Figs. 283 and 284.—Air cornpressors, built by tlie Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz
  - 230 OIL MOTORS.
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  - Fig. 285. —Winding winch for use on building construction, by the Motorenfabrik
  - “ Oberursel.”
  - Fig. 286.—Engine-driven fire-engine, built by the Daimler-Motorengesellsehaft,
  - Untertiirkheim.
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- - 232
  - OIL MOTORS.
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  - car, motor-driven, liy Bieberstein & Güdicke, Hamburg.
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- - Fig. 290.—Dynamo with three-cylinder engine, by Biebe?,stein & Gbdicke, Hamburg,
  - 234 ... OIL MOTORS
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- - Fig. 291.—Engine-driven traverser, by Gebr. Korting, Kortingsdorf, near Hanover.
  - YEHICLES AND AÏRSIIIPS DRIVEN BY INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 235
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- - Fia. 292.—Engine-driven wood-sawing and cutting machine, built by Grob & Co., Leipzig.
  - 2‘>G OÏL MOTORS
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- - CHAPTER XI. '
  - ERECTION AND ATTENDANCE OF ENGINES DRIVEN WITH LIQUID-FUEL.
  - An engine may be installée! within the boundaries of the German Empire without a permit from the local authorities being first obtained; in the kingdom of Saxony, however, such a permit is neeessary. If the plant is to be insured against (ire, certain requirements established with spécial reference to this matter hâve to be complied with ; these conditions are given at the end of the présent chapter.
  - In selecting a site for the érection of stationary engines, the following points should be taken into account :—
  - 1. The firmness of the ground vvhicli is to carry the foundations.
  - 2. The possibility of locating tlie engine in a eonvenient position with
  - respect to the machinery in order to obtain a simple System of
  - transmission or drive.
  - 3. Facility of transport of the lieavier parts of the engine to the site on
  - which it is to be put down.
  - 4. Accessibility ail round the engine.
  - 5. The possibility of carrying off the exhaust gases.
  - 6. The adéquate supply of cold water, or a sufhcient space to allow of
  - the érection of a cooling tower.
  - 7. The canvassing of local opinion on such points as the noise of the
  - engine and the smell of the exhaust gases.
  - 8. The possibility of damage to the engine-house and the neighbouring
  - buildings from vibration caused by the engine.
  - These questions are easily solved in the case of small engines ; with larger engines, however, such as Diesel engines, for example, ail matters dealing with the érection, and also those relating to cost, rnust be very carefully considered.
  - Firm ground for foundations.—Made ground, or ground containing a large proportion of clay, or again rubble, is not suitable for the foundations of an engine. Care nmst first be taken, with regard to the depth to which the foundation must be carried, that it reaches down to a really firm bottom. Attention nmst also be paid to the level of the ground water. The cost of
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  - OIL MOTOKS.
  - foundations may, in sonie instances, reach so high a figure that this reason alone may justify the sélection of another site.
  - When the engine has to be erected otherwise than on the ground, the strength and satisfactory condition of the flooring rnust be properly ascer-tained beforehand.
  - Location for good transmission.—In settling on the correct place for the engine with reference to machines and drives already installed, care must be taken that the machines requiring the most power are nearest to the engine ; there shonld be ample room for the belts so that tliey can be easily handled.
  - Transport of the heavy parts of the engine.—Facility of transport of the engine to the site it is to occupy, and for the carrying out of repairs, is of great importance ; this point is often given insufficient attention, when the engine must be located either in an underground room or above ground level. It must be ascertained whether there is sufficient room ail along the patli over which parts of the engine will hâve to be carried, and whether the strength of the flooring is sufficient for the heavy parts to be taken over it. In this connection staircases and landings must be carefully examined. The carrying capacity of staircases can Jbe mucli increased by stiffening the landings and covering the treads with stout planks.
  - The transport into and out of underground rooms is the most difficult. Great mistakes are often made in this respect even in new buildings destined to contain an engine installation, and in niany cases completed partitions bave to be knocked down and entrances widened in order that the larger engine parts may be taken into the site. It sometimes happens that old engines cannot be got rid of and replaced by new ones erected in their stead, because in the course of time additions hâve been made to the buildings which prevent the removal of the older engines from the underground room and the introduction of a newer machine.
  - Accessibility of the Engine.—Neither is sufficient attention given in many cases to the matter of safety in starting the engine, and to that of ease. of inspection and repair. The belt-pulley is frequently so close to the wall that there is no room left for putting on or removing the belt. Or else between the rim of the flywheel and the wall there is very little space and the driver is able to make use of the wall as a fulcrum when turning round the flywheel.
  - In vertical engines, it happens in some instances that there is insufficient height to allow of the removal of the piston and piston-rod from the cylinder.
  - In cities, the matter of the exhaust piping is one of considérable difficulty, as it has to be carried up to a height greater than that of one’s own and of neiglibouring roofs.
  - The supply of cooling water and return of the water used must also be duly considered. The underground engine-rooms may be so low down that the water, after having served its purpose, cannot be easily drained away. The cost of the water must also be studied if the supply is from town
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- - ERECTION AND ATTENDANCE OF ENGINES DRIVEN WITH LIQUID-FUEL. 239
  - mains. Where no outflow pipes or drains are available, percolating pits must be sunlc.
  - A most important point connected with engines constantly at work is tbat the neighbourhood should not be inconvenienced by the noise of the engine or the smell of the exhaust gases. The noise may be mnch roduced by resorting to several exhaust heads or by inserting in the piping lengths of ribbed pipe.
  - The vibrations wliich are frequently set up by the engines should not be transmitted to the walls of houses or buildings. Even wlien the revolving masses of the engines are balanced as perfectly as possible, complété absence of vibration is rarely attainable.
  - The masonry forming the engine foundation should not, under any circum-stance, be directly connected to the wall of the building ; neither should it touch even, but a certain amount of space should be allowed between them.
  - Foundations. — Internai combustion engines up to G h.p. can be mounted on a cast-iron base-plate secured to a concrète foundation 20 to 25 cms. (7‘8 to 9*8 ins.) in thickness. When erected on the floor of a building or factory, the base-plate should be placed near the wall, and bolted to the beams of the flooring.
  - In erecting large engines on brick foundations, care should be taken to see that the holding bolts are not tightened before the cernent grouting is quite set. When they hâve been tightened, the position of the engine should be earefully checked in every detail. The running hot of new engines is not by any means an inévitable evil, but is nearly always due to settling of the engine frame and bearings.
  - The oil used for lubrication, if allowed to run on to the masonry foundation, ends by completely impregnating the cernent mortar, and converting it into a kind of thick mud, and the support of the engine is thereby endangered. Most builders remedy this by fitting trays round the engine. in which the overflow oil is collected. If no such collectors are used, sawdust must be scattered round the engine to absorb ail the oil that may run out.
  - The drawings for the foundations should be got out before ordering the engine, in order to obtain an idea of the total cost of the installation.
  - Exhaust pipe.—Masonry chimneys, or rain-water pipes and waste-water pipes made of galvanised sheets, must not be used for carrying off the exhaust gases, because they cannot withstand the pressure of the exhaust, which is considérable in some circumstances. Zinc is, moreover, destroyed by the action of the exhaust gases. Zinc roofs also suffer when the gases are allowed to escape close to them. Masonry, smoke, or ventilation hues which are not used for their original purpose, can, however, be turned to account with advantage for the accommodation of wrought- or cast-iron exhaust pipes. Thick cast-iron pipes are always préférable to the thinner wrought-iron ones, as they are far less quickly damaged by the action of the gases than is the case with the latter.
  - Where there are long horizontal lengths of piping, these should end in a
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - very steep length, so as to prevent the gases from carrying ofF with them the water that forms in the pipes, which would be liable to cause damage to the roofs and rain-water guttering.
  - When the exhaust pipes are led through wooden floors, or are fixed to
  - Fig. 293.—Cooliug witli water under pressure and exhaust pipe for a small vertical engine
  - wooden partitions, tliey should be insulated with fire-proof material at ail points that may become heated.
  - Air-supply pipes.—Long air-supply pipes reduce the power of the engine, and should only be used where air free from dust is required ; the air, more-over, should be cool and dry. The air piping should be of suffîciently large diameter to prevent any excessive air résistance ; no tliin sheets should be
  - Fig. 294.—Arrangement of cooling tank witli a 2 h.-p. engine.
  - used in its manufacture, as the pressure on the inside may rise momentarily, at times to 2 or 3 atms. (29‘4 or 44 lbs. per sq. in.) in case of back fire.
  - Cooling.—The most simple method of cooling, and that most generally used for stationary engines, is that by water under pressure. The water is delivered at the lower part of the water jacket, and on becoining heated up to 50° or 60° (112° or 140° Fahr.), is allowed to flow out freely in a funnel, so
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- - ERECTION AND ATTENDANCE OF ENGINES DKIVEN WITII LIQUID-FUEL. 241
  - that the rate of circulation of the cooling water and the température are easily ascertained. Fig. 293 shows a cooling device of this kiud.
  - This method of cooling présupposés the existence of a drain through whicli the hot water may be led away. Water consumption for this purpose may be estimated at from 30 to 40 litres (6'6 to 8'8 gallons) per horse-power-hour. With large engines, the quantity of cooling water required is considérable, and it is advisable in these cases to hâve a well, with water supply provided by a pump driven from the engine. Where water is scarce, cooling towers or
  - cooling ponds must be provided in the saine way as with some steam-engine installations.
  - With small stationary engines, up to about 8 h.-p., instçad of the cooling arrangement just described, the cooling tank System is found advantageous.
  - The cooling tank is usually of galvanised iron, and its capacity is so proportioned that the quantity of water it contains, omitting to take into account the efFect of radiation, becomes heated up to 50° or 60° (112° or 140° Fahr.) in 10 hours. Taking 40 litres (8’8 gallons) of water heated per horse-power-hour, the capacity of a tank for, say, a 2 h.-p. engine will be 40 x 2 x 10 = 800 litres (177'7 gallons). Whenever possible, the tank should not be in the same room as the engine, but exposed to currcnts of air, so that the water shall be cooled during the night ; it should not, however, be directly exposed to the cold in winter. On hot summer days, it mav happen that the
  - 16
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- - 242
  - OÏL MOTORS.
  - température of the whole quantity of water becomes raised to the boiling point, when a certain quantity should be drawn off and replaced by cold water. The attendant should always be careful to see that the water level is always above the upper pipe opening.
  - The engine being lower than the tank, the water becomes heated by circulating round the engine, and is delivered from the water-jacket to the upper part of the tank, cold water flowing from the tank in equal volume to the lower part of the water-jacket. Circulation on tliis principle can only work properly when the upper connecting pipe is of sulficient diameter, given suffieient rise and without sharp bends.
  - The cooling water-tank occupies a good deal of rooin, is of considérable weight, and does not produce a constant température throughout the time the engine is running. Radiators are more satisfactory in this respect ; they are,
  - Fig. 297. —Air cooler.
  - however, mucli more expensive in first cost, but they keep the température of the engine constant and require but a small quantity of water. The space they occupy is also very small.
  - Circulation of the water takes place in the same way as with the tank installation, but its cooling is greatly accelerated by the very large radiating surface of the ribs ; the circulation is also rnuch more rapid, and a mucli smaller quantity of water suffices. The larger the piping and the higher the radiator is placed above the engine, the more rapid is the cooling effect. As the water by heating increases considerably in volume, the radiator must not be closed up, but must be provided as sliown in fig. 295, with an expansion tank.
  - When the radiator is placed as sliown in fig. 296, the beat whicli radiâtes from it may be used in winter for heating a room, and in summer for ventilat-ing purposes. In winter, the opening in the wall is closed by a flap as shown in dotted lines ; it is kept open in summer.
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- - ERECTION AND ATTENDANCE OF ENGINES DRIVEN WITH LIQUID-FUEL. 243
  - With portable engines, the water-cooling is also carried out on the System adopted in the cooling towers used in connection with steam engines,
  - Petpo I Tant
  - ^Eothauat Pipe
  - Petrol Cash
  - Fig. 298.—Installation consisting of a small engine using petrol, benzol, or paraffin.
  - and is called an air-cooling plant. As seen in fig. 297, the cold water supplied by a pump is sent through the water-jaclcet and sprayed by means of a rose in the upper part of a cooling tank, whence it flows dovvn drop by drop over a number of wooden laths. A current of air flows up the tank, and cools the
  - A
  - Fig. 299.—Engine installation for agricultural purposes.
  - water as it falls. The cooled water collecte at the bottom of the tank, and is pumped through the water-jacket again.
  - The adjoining illustrations sliow various installations, Fig. 298 is a
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- - 244
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - Figs. 300 imd 301..—Engine installation for agricul tural purposes.
  - AI, 2 li.-p. enginc.
  - T, Line shafting.
  - Ë, Coarse grinrling mill.
  - R, Maize husking machine.
  - II, Chalf cutter (fig. 299).
  - P, AVater pump in well.
  - AV, AVater tank.
  - A, lîelt pulley for various purposes.
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- - ERECTION AND ATTENDANCE OP ENGINES DRIVEN WITH LlQUID-FUEL. 245
  - general view of a statiouary plant with a stnall engine using petrol, benzol, or paraffin, showing also the location of the fuel-tank.
  - Figs. 302 and 303. — Mechanically worked dairy and agrieultural installation.
  - (For références see next page. )
  - Figs. 299 to 301 show installations for agricultural purposi-s as built by Ganz & (Jo., Budapest. Figs. 302 to 305 illustrate a ineclianically worked dairy, and fig. 306 a motor-driven roll mill.
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- - 246
  - OÏL MOTOKS.
  - Figs. 302 to 305.
  - M, 2 h.-p. engine ; T, Line shafting ; E, Coarse grinding mill ; H, Chaff cutter ; R, Maize husk-ing machine ; P, Water pump ; C, Centrifugal separator ; Z, Pulley for helt drive, for sanie ; B K, Butter-maldng machines; W, Water tank ; W M, Water tap.
  - Figs. 304 and 305.—Mechanically worked dairy and agricultural installation.
  - Fig. 306.—Roll mill driven by a 3 h.-p. engine.
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- - ERECTION AND ATTENDANCE OE ENGINES DRIVEN WITH LIQÜID-FÜEL. 247
  - Conditions in force from lst August 1906, relating to the Installation of Stationary Engines, using for fuel Petrol, Ligroine, Gasoline, Naphtha, or other liquid hydrocarbons whose flash-point is below that of the best refined paraffin.
  - A. —Engines whose gas producer or vaporiser is installed in a separate room.—1. The engine must only be laid down in rooms in which no easily inflammable articles or materials are stored or manufactured, and must be erected on a fireproof foundation. Where the foundation does not extend for at least 30 cms. (12 in s.) round the engine on ail sides, the flooring, if made of wood, must be covered over with iron sheeting for the remainder of this distance ail round. No woodwork or inflammable material must be nearer thau 1 m. (39‘37 ins.) from the top, and 30 cms. (12 ins.) from the sides of the engine.
  - An engine must be at a distance of at least 1 m. (39'37 ins.) from any heated oven or heated pipes.
  - 2. The gas producer or vaporiser must be put down in a strongly built room which is put to no other use. The room must be well ventilated, hâve a fireproof floor and a strong ceiling, or one protected with fireproof material and without any opening ; it should be heated with water or steam only. Openings for driving shafts, rope or belt drives, and doorways, or window openings into adjoining rooms, are only to be allowed wlien in the latter rooms there is no easily inflammable material stored or in course of manufacture. The door openings are to be provided with iron or iron-covered doors ; the Windows are to be made with wired glass. The above limitation as to the passage of the driving shaft is not applicable when the passage only aftords the necessary opening for the shaft.
  - 3. When artificial lighting is resorted to in the gas-producer room, this must only be doue by electric incandescent lamps, Davy safety-lamps, or by outside lamps partitioned ofF from the room by thick glass panes fitted so as to be air- or gas-tight.
  - 4. The filling of the gas-producer or vaporiser must only be done from an iron tank placed inside the gas-producer room or in the open, and througli closed-in pipes, using a rotary pump, or by using portable explosion-proof tanks.
  - The stock of hydrocarbon must not exceed 500 kgs. (10 cwts.), and must be kept in wrought-iron tanks, in separate, fireproof, and well-ventilated rooms, which are not to be artificially lighted at ail, or, if lighted, the provisions given under (3) must be followed ; or else in the open, in a pit sunlc in the ground, lined with masonry and provided with an iron cover.
  - 5. The exhaust pipe leading from the engine must be made fireproof.
  - B. —Engines with their gas-producer or vaporiser in the same room.— 1. The engine, and the producer with which it is connected, must be laid down in a room used for no other purpose. This room must be built with
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  - thick walls, fireproof floor, and a strong ceiling, or one protected with fireproof material and without any openings. Openings for shafts, rope or belt drives, and doorways and window openings into adjoining rooms, are only to be allowed when in the latter room there is no easily inflammable material stored or in course of manufacture. The door openings are to be provided with iron or iron-covered doors ; the Windows are to be made with wired glass. The above limitation as to the passage of the driving shaft is not applicable when the passage only aiïords the necessary opening for the shaft.
  - 2. Wlien artilicial lighting is resorted to in the room containing the pro-ducer and engine, this must only be done by electric incandescent lamps, Davy safety-lamps, or by outside lamps partitioned off from the room by thick glass panes fitted so as to be air- or gas-tight.
  - 3. Ignition may only be performed by electric current or air compression, and without heating lamps.
  - 4. The filling of the producer must only be done from an iron tank placed in the engiue-room, and through closed-in pipes, using a rotary pump, or by using portable explosion-proof tanks.
  - The stock of hydrocarbon must not exceed 500 kgs. (10 cwts.), and must be kept in wrought-iron tanks placed in separate, fireproof, and well-ventilated rooms, which are not to be artificially liglited at ail, or, if lighted, the provision given under (2) must be followed ; or else in the open in a pit sunk in the ground lined with masonry and covered with an iron cover.
  - 5. The exhaust pipe leading from the engine must be made fireproof.
  - C. Engines without gas-producer or vaporiser.—1. The engine must only be put down in a room in which no easily inflammable material is stored or manufactured, and must be erected on a fireproof foundation. If the foundation does not extend for at least 30 cms. (12 ins.) round the engine on ail sides, the flooring, if made of wood, must be covered with iron sheeting to that distance. JSTo woodwork and inflammable material must be nearer than 1 ni. (39‘37 ins.) from the top, and 30 cms. (12 ins.) from the sides of the engine.
  - 2. If a heating lamp is used for starting the engine, the engine-room is only to contain suflicient fuel for this lamp for the day’s run, stored in an explosion-proof tank.
  - 3. The fuel-tank, which supplies directly to the engine the necessary hydrocarbon for its working, is to be made of iron, and must be placed outside the engine-room in the open air, or in a separate well-ventilated room, lieated by steam or hot water, and lighted only by incandescent lamps, Davy safety-lamps, or by an outside liglit partitioned off from the room by thick, gas-tight-fitting glass panes. This room must hâve thick walls, a fireproof flooring, and a strong ceiling, or one covered with fireproof material and without any openings. Openings for driving shafts, ropes, or belt drives, and doorways or window openings into adjoining rooms, are only allowed when in the latter rooms there is no easily inflammable material stored or in course of manufacture. The door openings are to be provided with iron or
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- - ERECTION AND ATTENDANCE OF ENGINES DRIVEN WITH LIQUID-FUEL. 249
  - iron-covered doors; the Windows are to be made with wired glass. The above limitation as to tbe passage of the driving shaft is not applicable when the passage only afFords the necessary opening for the shaft, If the engine is fitted with electric or compression ignition, and is started up without the use of a heating lamp, the fuel-tank may be placed in the engine-room provided this meets the conditions set forth for rooms containing fuel-tanks.
  - 4. The filling of the fuel-tank must only be done from an iron tank kept in tbe fuel-tank room or in the open, tbrough elosed-in pipes, using a rotary pump, or by using portable explosion-proof tanks.
  - The stock of hydrocarbon must not exceed'500 kgs. (10 cwts.), and must be kept in wrought-iron vessels, in separate, fireproof, and well-ventilated rooms, which are not to be artificially liglited at ail, or, if lighted, the provisions given under (3) are to be foliowed ; or else in the open, in a pit sunk in the ground, lined with masonry and provided with an iron cover.
  - 5. The exhaust pipe leading from the engine must be made fireproof, and mounted at a safe distance from the fuel-supply pipe.
  - Conditions for Alcohol Engines.
  - 1. The engines must not be put down in buildings containing corn, straw, or other easily inflammable material, or run in close proxitnity to hayricks or sheds containing haystacks ; when working, they must be at a distance of at least 1 m. (about I yd.) from the latter, or at least at a distance of 3 ms. (about 3 yds.) from corn, straw, or other easily inflammable material.
  - 2. They should be worked with commercial alcohol containing a maximum of 90 per cent, pure alcohol. An addition of 20 per cent of benzol is allowed.
  - 3. When using an addition of benzol, the process of nhxing must be done in daylight only, in the open, or in a room with fireproof flooring ; in both cases, at a safe distance from ail combustible material.
  - 4. When using petrol or benzol for starting the engine, electric ignition only must be used ; no carburettor heated in any manner whatever is allowed. The use of tube ignition is permissible provided tliat the heating flame for it is surrounded by a sheet-metal covering, in which ail openings must be covered with well-fitting wire gauze screens.
  - 5. Alcohol and petrol tanks must be so far removed from the heated parts of the engine,. that no noticeable heating of the tanks occur. The receiver on the engine containing the petrol for starting should not hâve a capacity of more than 1|- litre (2-65 pints), and must be covered with a self-cleansing tight-fitting métal cover.
  - 6. The fuel-tanks may only be filled by daylight. The alcohol tank may only be filled by using a rotary pump ; for filling the petrol tank an explosion-proof vessel is to be used.
  - 7. No stock of fuel for supplementing the supply of alcohol in the tank is to be kept in proximity to the engine; the stock is only to be replenished
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  - OIL MOTORS.
  - vvhen it lias becomo exhausted. During replenishing of the supply of fuel the engine must be stopped running.
  - 8. The stock of benzol or petrol must not exceed 250 kgs. (5 cwts.), and must be kept in iron vessels, stored in a separate fireproof room, which must never be entered witli a light ; or in a pit sunk in the open, lined with walls, provided with an iron cover, and at a distance of at least 10 ms. (about 10 yds.) from buildings or inflammable material. When the stock of petrol or benzol together does not exceed 20 kgs. (44 lbs.), it may be kept in vessels made of other métal.
  - Conditions for Stationary Alcohol Engines.
  - 1. The engine may only be installed in a room in which no easily combustible material is stored or in process of manufacture, and only on a fireproof foundation. When the foundatiou does not extend for at least 30 cms. (12 ins.) round the engines on ail sides, the flooring, if made of wood, must be covered with iron sheeting to make up that distance. ISTo woodwork and inflammable material must be nearor than 1 m. (39-37 ins.) from the top of the engine, and 30 cms. (12 ins.) from the sides.
  - 2. The engine and the tanks containing the fuel must be at a distance of at least 2 ms. (about 2 yds.) from lieated ovens or pipes, and from ail lighting lamps (electric incandescent lamps excepted),
  - 3. The exhaust pipe leading from the engine must be rendered fireproof.
  - 4. The engine may only be supplied with commercial alcohol containing at most 90 per cent, pure alcohol. An addition of 20 per cent, benzol is allowed.
  - 5. The vessels from which fuel is supplied to the engine through closed pipes must not be brought over the engine, but must be kept to the side at a distance of at least 1 m. (about 1 yd.).
  - 6. The mixture of the fuel and the filling of the fuel vessels must only take place in daylight ; in case of need this can also be carried out by artificial light if the conditions under (2) be fulfilled.
  - 7. The stock of petrol and benzol must not exceed together 250 kgs. (5 cwts.), and must be kept in wrought-iron vessels, stored in a separate fireproof room, which is not to be entered with a light, or in a pit sunk in the open, lined with walls, provided with an iron cover, at a distance of at least 10 ms. (over 10 yds.) from buildings and material liable to catch fire. When the stock of petrol and benzol together does not exceed 20 kgs. (44 lbs.), it may be kept in vessels made of another métal.
  - Conditions relating to Stationary Engines using Paraffin or Liquid Hydrocarbons whose flash-point is above that of the richest Paraffin.
  - 1. The engine must only be supplied with the richest paraffin, or with a fuel whose flash-point is above that of the richest paraffin.
  - 2. The engine may only be laid down in a room in which there are no easily inflammable materials stored or in course of manufacture, and only on
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  - a fireproof foundation. If the foundation does not extend for at least 30 cms. (12 ins.) ail round the base of the engine, the flooring, if of wood, is to be covered over the remaining distance with iron sheeting. No woodwork and inflammable material must be nearer than 1 m. (39‘37 ins.) from the top of the engine, 30 cms. (12 ins.) from the sides.
  - 3. The engine and fuel-tanks must be at a distance of at least 1 m. (39‘37 ins.) from heated ovens or pipes.
  - 4. The exhaust pipe leading from the engine must be rendered fireproof.
  - 5. The stock of fuel rmist not exceed 500 kgs. (10 cwts.), and must be kept in a room which is not to be entered with a naked light, or in the open at a distance of at least 10 ms. (over 10 yds.) from buildings.
  - Attendance of Engines.
  - The hand levers for starting and stopping the engine sliould always be placed in the same positions ; by practice, the attendant soon gets to operate these mechanically.
  - Instructions for starting.
  - It is necessary
  - 1. To light the heating lamp if one is used.
  - 2. To fill the oil-cups and lubricators always in the same order, and to watch the action of the sight-feed lubricators.1
  - 3. To apply paraffin to the exhaust valve spindle and to the ignition interrupter lever spindle. To ascertain that the exhaust valve and the ignition interrupter lever work freely.
  - 4. To throw into gear the compression relief arrangement and to retard the ignition.
  - 5. To open the fuel feed-cock to the usual mark required for starting.
  - 6. To turn the flywheel with the hand-crank or barriug-gear. In large engines, the starting-gear must be set in motion.
  - 7. As soon as ignition occurs regularly, and the engine lias acquired a certain amount of speed, to set in operation compression, to regulate for early ignition, and to place the fuel supply-valve in the running position.
  - 8. To start the cooling water supply.
  - 9. To shift the transmission belt on to the driving pulley.
  - Attendance when running.
  - 1. To ascertain the cooling water température.
  - 2. To observe the working of the lubricators.
  - 3. To regulate the fuel supply.
  - 4. In winter to repeatedly drain off the water from the exhaust pipe.
  - 1 In cold weather, tlie lubricating oil may become so tliick that it only llows slowly from the oil-can, and the lubricators may not act efficiently as long as the engine remains cold. The oil-cans sliould in sucli cases be warmed, so that the lubricators may be filled with a more liquid lubricant.
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  - For stopping the engine.
  - 1. To remove the belt.
  - 2. To eut off the fuel supply ; put out the heating flame and open the oil drain-cock on the combustion cliamber.
  - 3. To stop lubrication.
  - 4. To stoj) the working piston at the end of the outward stroke, the gear leaving the exhaust valve open.
  - 5. Cut off' the cooling water after complété cooling down of the engine. (By this means the deposit of scale is prevented ; scale is due mainly to the water cooling down in the engine and being heated up again.)
  - 6. Draining the water off from the exhaust pipe.
  - 7. Should frosty weather be anticipated, the water must be emptied out of ail cooling jackets, also out of the ribbed radiators.
  - Cleaning of the engine.
  - Th.e engine should be cleaned on the outside every evening immediately on stopping, and while it is still warm. Ail polished and varnished parts should be rubbed down with soft clean waste.
  - Internai cleaning should include the valve chest, valves, exhaust passages, exhaust piping, combustion chamber, piston and rings, and cylinder walls. The time for internai cleaning cannot be presoribed, as this cleaning dépends upon the type of engine and the care with which it is worked. Under normal conditions, it may be taken that stationary engines working with petrol or benzol for ten liours a day, require to hâve their valves and electric ignition device seen to about every eight weeks. With paraffin engines working with vaporisera, internai cleaning should be doue more often. Diesel engines require less frequent cleaning.
  - If the valve heads become covered with oil, this should be removed, and at the same time, the valve spindles, the parts operating the electric ignition, and the inside of the valve ch ests, should also be cleaned. The carbonised oil is removed with iron or copper scrapers.
  - Seeing that the greater part of the lubricating oil supplied to the cylinder is carried out through the exhaust valve in the form of oil vapour or oil spray with the exhaust gases, it is clear that lubrication must not be carried to excess. In paraffin engines working with a vaporiser, a large quantity of unconsumed paraffin finds its way through the exhaust valve. In ail such cases, therefore, one must expect the opening in the exhaust valve, exhaust head, and exhaust pipe, to become quickly narrower, even to the extent of being stopped up, and frequent—often weekly—cleaning is necessary. Such conditions, of course, arise from bad workmanship and neglect in attendance. In tliese cases the power is reduced and the consumption of fuel increased.
  - Among the most important duties of the driver is the maintenance of the valves in good working condition. The development of the full power of the engine, its economical running and easy starting, dépend mainly upon the
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  - valves remaining tight. Tlie valve cliests must therefore be easily opened and tbe valves easily removed. Foreign bodies of ail kinds—sand, dust, filings, etc.—carried in with the air for combustion, are liable to become attached to the valve faces. The excessively hot combustion gases which fiow through the exhaust valve port, lead to the formation of scale; tlie oil residues also, already referred to, may cause both valves to work badly. The inlet valve suffers less by heat, the regular inflovv of cool air for the charge forming a most efficient method of cooling.
  - It is important that the air for the charge should be drawn from a certain height above the floor level and from a place where there is no dust ; it is a very unwise arrangement to hâve the air-suction orifice on the floor level. In automobiles, the air should be drawn from the place the least exposcd to dust.
  - Foreign bodies which become attached to the valve faces should be removed with care, and the valve heads and spindles eleaned of eoomb by using paraffin. Valves that are not tight are ground in with medium fine emery ; valves made of brass or copper, occasionally used in internai combustion engines, are ground in with glass powder.
  - In engines which receive good attention, the combustion chamber and piston rarely require cleaning. So long as the piston rings are free, they need not be removed. The ring lying nearest to the combustion chamber will be found to become fixed only after a comparatively long period of working ; when this occurs ail the rings should be removed and eleaned thoroughly, the grooves being also thoroughly eleaned ont at the same time. The removal and rcplacing of the rings and of the piston must be carricd out with great care. The rings which become tight may be loosened by using paraffin ; it is advisable to steep the whole piston in paraffin, after which the rings will be easily moved if struck with a wooden mallet.
  - For facilitating the replacing of the eleaned piston, a piston-clamp is generally used, supplied by the engine-builder.
  - Ail parts which are removed from the engine and eleaned, should be deposited in a clean place where they are not likely to be damaged. When removed, the connecting rods should not be left leaning against a wall, for in such a position sand and dust can easily find its way to the bearings, When for any reason the lay-shaft lias to be removed, care must be taken in replacing it that the teeth of the pinions mesh together in exactly the same manner as before, or else the valves will not work well.
  - When the engine is re-erected, and ail the nuts and bolts hâve been properly tightened up, it is turned round in the reverse direction in order to test it for tightness, and then set running. It is tested for power by means of a brake on the flywheel and a lever; small engines are tested for power with a pad of cleaning waste as a brake. After a run of a few minutes, the bearings are examined in order to ascertain whether they are running hot or not,
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- - CHAPTER XII.
  - ON CORRECTING IRREGULARITES IN RUNNING. DANGERS, AND PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN, IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.
  - One of the essential qualities of a really capable engine attendant or chauffeur is the ability of finding out quickly any cause of irregular working of his engine, and to make it good expeditiously. In this respect, internai combustion engines présent greater difficulties than steam engines. An internai combustion engine supplies itself with fuel and air for combustion in the quantities required for the work it has to perform. It has no reserve of power on which it can draw, in the same way as a steam engine can draw on its boiler. A small amount of leakage in a steam engine does not give rise to trouble in running, but in internai combustion engines leakage forms the main cause of such troubles. Moreover, the fuel vapours and air with which one has to deal in these engines, are both invisible, and this renders it necessary to hâve recourse to indirect ways and means in seeking for the cause of leakage, this being traced by following up the effects it has produced.
  - In finding out the cause of any irregularity in running, one must proceed methodically. By haphazard tests no clear opinion is possible as to the most satisfactory measure to adopt, and the real source of the evil. The following are a few directions for tracing the principal causes of troubles that may occur, togetlier with the means of remedying them.
  - The troubles that occur mostly in internai combustion engines are :—
  - 1. The engine refuses to start, and explosions occur in the exhaust pipe.
  - 2. It refuses to start, without the occurrence of accompanying explosions.
  - 3. It starts running, but stops after a few ignitions.
  - 4. It can be started running, but each time only after a number of idle
  - révolutions.
  - 5. Running is irregular.
  - 6. The engine refuses to run after it has been working for some time.
  - 7. The power developed is too small.
  - 8. Explosions occur in the air-pipé while drawing in the charge.
  - 9. Knocking occurs.
  - 10. The engine runs at too high a speed.
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  - 1. The Engine refuses to start, and Explosions occur in the Exhaust Pipe.
  - Cause of the trouble.—The exhaust valve spindle fits too tightly in its guide, or the valve is not tight.
  - Remedy.—(a.) To pour paraffin in the small tube provided for the purpose in the valve spindle guide, and to work the valve up and down. Oil must not be used for lubricating the valve spindle, as the resuit would be the reverse of what is wanted, for the oil would carbonise at the high température of the spindle, thus preventing it from working ; paraffin, on the other hand, evaporates without leaving a deposit.
  - (b.) Should easing the exhaust valve not meet the case, then it must be removed and its seat cleaned of any foreign substance that may hâve become attached to it. Eventually it may be necessary to grind the valves in.
  - Explanation.—When the valve does not work freely in its guide, or when foreign substances prevent it from closing down tight, a part of the uncon-sumed charge enters the exhaust head and exhaust pipe during the compression period. On ignition, the portion of the charge in question becomes ignited also inside the exhaust head and exhaust pipe through the opening left by the exhaust valve, the gases of combustion being driven through the
  - 2. The Engine refuses to start, without the occurrence of accommfely-
  - ing Explosions in the Exhaust Pipe.
  - Cause of tlie trouble.—Ignition does not take place, (a) in engines with> hot-tube ignition, because the tube is not hot enougli or because it becomes foui inside.
  - Explanation and remedy.—Tn petrol, benzol, and alcohol engines, the hot tube only acts when it is red-hot. It is necessary to see whether the heating lamp is burning well ; its supply must be regulated and the cinder removed from the wick.
  - Should the valves be tight and the lamp burning well, the trouble can only be traceable to the stopping up of the ignition tube or of the carburettor. This occurs mostly in paraffin engines working with vaporisers, when these engines are too freely lubricated or when the fuel supply is too abundant. In the latter case, the objects near the exhaust pipe outlet are frequently wet with paraffin over a large radius.
  - (b.) In engines fitted with electric ignition. Electric ignition is subject to many disturbing influences. In cold weather, water is deposited on the internai parts of the device, this water coming from the products of combustion ; or lubricating oil is deposited on the sparking points ; or again the insulation is covered on the inside with a coating of soot and carbonised oil. In low-tension ignition devices, the lever frequently works stiffly, or its spring is damaged, broken, or it falls oiï. The current conductor may
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  - become loose at the engine terminal or be brolcen ; or it may be badly insulated and may touch a metallic part of the engine.
  - Explanation and remedy.—The most common cause is the “ sweating ” of the parts in the combustion chamber. This occurs in cold weather, when the mixture drawn in is much hotter than the inside of the engine. The moisture of the air and the fuel vapours résolve themselvos into a damp coating on some fittings of the ignition device, and sparking is prevented.
  - Préventive measures.—The ignition mountings or the plug should be removed for a short time before starting the engine, and deposited in a warm place, The engine should be started immediately the device is replaced.
  - The ignition interrupter lever spindle sticks fast.
  - Explanation and remedy.—This spindle becomes very bot when the engine is running, and its working may be interferod with by the formation of rust, or by clogging owing to the coagulation of the oil that is sprayed against it, while the strength of the weak spring driving the_ lever against the contact point becomes insufficient. The spindle is wetted with paraffin and worked up and down until it moves freely. A good attendant always sees that the ignition lever works freely before starting bis engine.
  - The ignition interrupter lever spring falls off, is damaged or hroken.
  - Explanation and remedy.—The ignition interrupter lever spring being l’epeatedly strained and released, the ends by which it is lixed may become slightly bent, or the spring may become stretched. In either case it may happen that the ignition lever does not complété its return movement, and sparking is not regular. A number of spare springs must be kept at liand.
  - Circuit is hroken.
  - Explanation and, remedy.—The conductors should often be inspected. The contact screws which liold the wire or the conductor easily become loose ; it is most important always to test the current before starting. In plug ignition, when the plugs become loose, sparks may be noticed, a sign that the metallic parts holding the plug and the engine corne in contact with each other. With luw-tension ignition, the fingers may be placed in connection with the contact screw and ignition interrupter lever, and the apparatus is given a slight rocking motion ; a slight shock will tlien be felt if the device is in working order.
  - 3. The Engine, fitted with an Electric Ignition Device, stops after a few Ignitions.
  - Cause of the trouble.—(a.) Electric ignition refuses to act, becauso iu cold weather the inner portion of the device is wet from the water vapours due to the first explosions.
  - Explanation and Remedy.—'The gases resulting from the combustion of the charge in the cylinder are water vapour and carbonic acid. The water
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  - vapour is turned into water in the combustion chamber, because its sides are still cold and absorb the heat rapidly, and it is only after a îiumber of successive explosions tliat the walls becomo sufficiently liot to prevent any further condensation of the vapour. As already stated, the plugs or the mountings should be removed and lieated.
  - (b.) The oil sprayers may also refuse to work after the first fcw ignitions. While tlie engine is standing, large quantities of oil collect at the bottom of the cylinder, or, in vertical engines, on the piston lioad. The working of the piston drives this oil towards the combustion chamber, where it spreads after the first few ignitions. If a drop of the oil reaches the sparking points or cornes between the interrupter lever and point, this would be quite sufficient to prevent ignition. In this case the plug or ignition mountings should be removed and cleaned. In order to prevent this trouble in horizontal engines, many builders now fit the combustion chamber with a drain-cock, through winch the excess of lubricating oil should be blown off after starting. It is also as well to open this cock, and to turn the engine for a little while without supplying it with fuel. An oil blow-off cock cannot be fitted to vertical engines.
  - This cock is also useful for ascertaining whether an inflammable mixture is properly formed, and whether ignition takes place or not. When the fuel supply is open, the engine revolved slowly and the oil-cock opened before completing compression, if mixture formation and ignition are working properly, a light-blue flame is driven with a good deal of noise through the cock. Should no such flame be produced, either the mixture formation or ignition is out of order. If a flame be held at the cock opening, and the out-rushing current of gas becomes ignited, it is a proof that ignition is in default. Should a yellow flame appear at the cock, it is a sign there is too mucli fuel in the mixture. In automobiles, the pet cock may be used for such tests. These tests, of course, must be carricd out with care. For ligliting the mixture, an alcohol lamp burning with a long flame should be used preferably to any other. The wick of the lamp should not be opposite the cock opening. One’s body, and especially one’s head, should be held well out of the way, for the flame issuing from the cock may cause dangcrous burns.
  - 4. Running is effected only after a large number of Idle Révolutions ; the Engine develops no power, because Ignition fails periodically.
  - This trouble may be due to several causes.
  - Ganse a.—The exhaust valve spring lias become fatigued ; is too weak or brolcen. b.—The fuel proportion in the charge is not normal, c.—In tube ignition, the tube is not sufficiently hot.
  - Explanation and Remedy.—(a.) If the exhaust valve spring lias become fatigued, or is too weak or broken, it does not offer sufficient résistance during the suction period, and the exhaust valve opens during this period as well as the suction valve, In this case air or combustion gases remain in front of
  - 17
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  - the exhaust valve, in the exhaust head or exhaust pipe, enter the cylinder and reduce the quality of the mixture to such a degree that it becomcs uninflam-mable. This uninflammable mixture, which, however, contains fuel, is driven into the exhaust head, and part of it returns to the cylinder on the next suction-stroke. On the first stroke there entered only into the cylinder gases of combustion ; on the next a weak mixture is formed, and at each successive suction-stroke this becomes enriched until it becomes inflammable and results in a working stroke, when the same sequence is repeated. ïhe length of the period between explosions is dépendent on the strength of the spring.
  - (b.) Ignition ceases periodically, because the proportion of fuel in the charge is too loiv.
  - Explanation.—Here also the charge becomes riclier gradually as in the case pointed ont under (a). Should the weak mixture formed be inflammable of itself, it becomes transformed, on mixing with the products of combustion remaining in the combustion chamber, into an uninflammable mixture, and it is only when the products of combustion are, as it were, overcome by a second, third, or fourth suction-stroke, when therefore a pure though perhaps poor mixture is formed in the combustion chamber, that ignition takes place. Then fresh combustion gases are produced, and the sequence is repeated.
  - (c.) Ignition becomes ivregular, because the ignition tube is not sufjiciently hot.
  - The poorer the charge and the colder the engine, the higlier must be the température of the ignition tube to insure régulai* ignition. It is possible for a mixture supplied pure from the carburettor to become ignited by a tube having only a low température, but this does not happen when the mixture is adulterated by the products of combustion which remain in the combustion chamber. In this case also ignition fails periodically until the mixture gradually becomes sufïiciently enriched.
  - 5. Irregular Running.
  - The engine runsfast, then sloios dotvn.
  - Cause of the trouble.—Faulty action of the governor.
  - Explanation and remedg.—In the case of engines fitted with a centrifugal governor, regularity in running dépends very much upon the carcful handling of this mechanical device. The arms, slides, guides, etc., ail the parts in fact which constitute the governor, must always be kopt well lubricated, otherwise it works stiffly and jams occasionally, this, of course, greatly reducing its sensitiveness. When it acts well at first and gradually becomes irregular in its action, the fault is attributable to lack of propor attention. It is not advisable that the driver should take it to pièces, but he should use turpentine or paraflin at the lubricating parts to dissolve the coagulated lubricating oil, until it runs freely. Then thinner lubricating oil should be used.
  - In small engines, in most of which absolutely regular running is not essential, inertia governors should be used, as tliey are casier to keep in order than centrifugal governors. In inertia governors the sharp tripping edges may wear down in time, but this may be remedied by resharpening tliem or
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  - by renewing the tripping piece. In the latter case, cave should be taken to see that the new edges are of correct length.
  - 6. The Engine stops after running for some time.
  - This may be attributable to—(a.) Ignition not taking place, (b.) The valves leaking. (c.) The asbestos joints being damaged. (d.) The nuts on the valve chest cover or on the ignition mountings having slackened back. (e.) The fuel supply pipes being stopped up. (/.) The presence of too mucli water in the exhaust head. (g.) Lubrication being defective.
  - Explanation and remedy.—(a.) The most délicate part in any engine is the ignition, especially when this is one of the electric Systems. It is necessary in the first place to ascertain whether ignition occurs regularly or not. This is done in the quickest and safest way by opening the oil or blow-off cock, the flame whicli appears from this showing whether ignition does take place or not. The failure of the ignition may be due to loosened terminal screws on the current conductors ; holding down of the ignition interrupter lever ; broken or damaged spring on the exterior arm of the ignition lever ; soot or carbonised oil on the insulation inside the combustion chamber ; oil drops, water condensed on the ignition insulation ; or fracture of the insulator. Testing for ignition is carried ont in the manner above described.
  - (b and c.)—It is possible to discover immediately whether leaky valves or other leaky parts are the cause of the trouble when the résistance to compression is small and the pressure quickly falls. Résistance to compression is tested more quickly when the flywheel is turned backwards. The cause of any leak is traced by a hissing noise, wliich occurs when the flywheel is turned backwards. The point whicli leaks is found by xneans of an uncovered light, by using oil or soap-water (when air-bubbles are formed), or by the action on fine threads of waste.
  - (d.)—The nuts on the inlet or exhaust valve cliests, or on the ignition mountings, may become loose ; especially is this liable to occur when new packing has been inserted. The matorial used, asbestos pulp, absorbs damp rapidly, the water evaporates after starting the engine, the asbestos pulp dries, and the first screwing up of the nuts becomes insufficient. Wliere this asbestos pulp is used, the nuts should be tightened down after the engine has started running. If this be not done, the joint is damaged and blown ont.
  - (e.)—Notwithstanding the fact that some lcind of filter is used in every engine installation, stoppages may occur in the fuel supply pipe from filings or other foreign matter finding their way in between the filter and the engine during érection of the plant. The openings in the carburettor are very small, and very fine particles suffice to stop them up. The filters also may become stopped up in course of time, especially if they hâve not a sufficient filtering surface. When an engine stops, therefore, the carburettor and the float valve should be removed and inspectcd, to see whether the fuel has a free passage or not.
  - (/.) Presence of too much water in the exhaust head.—The exhaust head, or
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  - silencer, frequently receives too little attention. Usually, and this is a grave mistake, it is not made easily accessible. The exhaust head, as is well known, is not only intended to stifle the noise of exhaust, but is also required to collect the water condensed from the gases of combustion. In cold weather, and with long exhaust pipes, the quantity of this water becomes so large that it must be run off several times a day. If this be not done, the water, especi-ally with “ hit and miss ” governing, may easily lind its way to the cylinder of the engine and cause the latter to stop, either by disturbing electric igni-tion, by causing the hot ignition tube to break, or by having an unfavourable influence on the mixture formation. The removal of water from the cylinder is frequently an intricate operation ; it involves the removal of the inlet valve and soaking up the water with a bail of rolled-up waste. Ail such difficulties are prevented when, in cold weather, the blow-off cock, or the exhaust head is left open so that the water can drain away.
  - (g.) Defective fabrication of cylinder or bearings.—When using ring lubri-cation, splash lubrication, or lubrication under pressure, defects under this head rarely occur. The oil supply pipes or the lubricating ports may become stopped up, or the screws fixing the covers of the bearings may be too tight, and the delivery of oil may be hindered, and one or more bearings become hot and a résistance sufficient to stop the engine may rcsult. When the engine is cleaned, the driver should therefore see that the fiow of oil to each lubricating point is perfect ; he should also make sure that no bearing runs hot after the engine lias been working for any lengtli of time.
  - 7. The power developed is too small, or the Engine runs too slowly.
  - Causes of the trouble.— (a.) The ignition is timed too early or too late. (b.) If an automatic inlet valve is used, the spring is too stiff or the valve lias too short a travel. (c.) Misfires occur. (d.) The valves or the piston are no longer tight, or leakage occurs at the other points, (e.) The exhaust valve is stopped up. (f.) The exhaust valve spring is damaged or too weak. (g.) The parts forming the gearing, or bolts or washers, hâve become worn. (h.) The gear wheels hâve become l’elatively displaced, and the wrong teeth engage one another. (i.) Too small a quantity of fuel is supplied.
  - The decrease in power developed is one of the most coramon and most annoying of troubles ; it occurs as a rule with engines worked to the limit of efficiency.
  - (a.) The ignition is timed too early or too late.—The great influence which an accurate timing of the ignition has on the power developed, was only realised as recently as about ten years ago, since the construction of liigh-speed automobile engines and large gas engines, and since the introduction of electric ignition, by which means the instant of ignition can be very simply controlled.
  - The greater the speed ; the greater the dimensions of an engine ; or the poorer the charge, the earlier must the ignition take place. Devices for con-trolling the time of ignition when the engine is running, are therefore of the
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  - greatest importance for a large development of power, and the driver must thoroughly understand the action of these de vices.
  - (b.) The inlet valve sprinj is too weaîc or the valve lias too short a travel. An important point in the development of power in a gas engine is the action of the inlet valve. If the capacity of the cylinder is to be properly taken advantage of, it must be filled witli as large a charge as possible. An automatic valve cannot satisfy tliis condition of working, as its action cannot be controlled. It opens only when suction on the suction-stroke lias become sufficient to overcome the weiglit of the valve or the strength of the spring. The valve then does not remain steadily open, but vibrâtes, providing a passage of constantly varying size. This results in two disadvantages : (1) the quantity of the charge is reduced, and (2) there is also a possibility that the valve only closes when at the end of the stroke a part of the charge in the cylinder back-fires, air being a compressible medium.
  - The irregularities due to the closing of the inlet valve too late, give rise to : (1) réduction in the power developed ; (2) loss of fuel ; and (3) odour in engine-room. In order to ascertain whether the charge is driven back through the inlet valve, an uncovered llame or a fine thread is held in front of the air inlet port ; if the flame or the thread is blown outwards on comple-tion of the suction-stroke, the charge is wasted. Ey altering the tension of the spring, or by replacing the spring by a stronger or a weaker oue, the defect can usually be remedied.
  - (e.) Misjiring.—Ignitions periodically missed, or retarded ignitions, occur witli tube ignition when the tube is not suffîciently hot. This can bc remedied by renewing the asbestos in the liame chimney and by reducing cooling.
  - (d.) Leakage of valves, piston, or covers.—Leakage in the engine leads to loss of fuel. The smaller the dimensions of the engine and the liigher compression is, the greater are the disadvantages due to leakage. Leakage of the valves can only be traced by inspecting their ground faces. The piston is not tiglit when there is a hissing noise when the engine is running. In engines with enclosed crank casings (automobile engines, etc.), the cover must be removed and the engine turned round by hand, to ascertain whether the hissing noise is produced. Leaks in the covers of the valves, ignition mountings, etc., can be traced, as already stated, by using oil or soap-water.
  - (e.) Stopping up of exhausi pipe and exhaust head.—Loss of power due to the stopping up of the exhaust pipe always occurs gradually. The cause of this is the formation of carbonised oil, the deposit of coagulated lubricating oil, and, in petrol engines, of unburnt fuel residues, which settle down in course of time on the sides of the exhaust head and pipe. The more copious the lubrication of the piston, and the less frequent the use of the oil blow-off cock, the more rapidly does this trouble arise. In course of time, in every internai combustion engine, the exhaust pipe opening becomes constricted. When the lubrication of the piston is doue carefully, the blow-ofï cock made use of regularly, and the fuel in paraftin engines supplied in correctly pro-
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  - portioned charges, the narrowing down of the exhaust pipe occurs more slowly. But the exhaust pipe lias from time to time to be unscrewed from the exhaust head and inspected. The carbonised oil and paraffin residues should be burnt out by placing the pipe on a smith’s hearth.
  - ( /'. ) Damaged or too weuk exhaust valve spring.—Every spring gradually loses its strength, and the exhaust valve requires a spring whicli lias always the same strength. During the suction period, there is a partial vacuum in the working cylinder, against which the exhaust valve must offer résistance. On the other hand, the spring must not be too strong for the exhaust gear to overcome the end pressure when performing the opening movement. The driver should ascertain occasionally by hand whether the strength of the exhaust valve spring is correct.
  - (g.) The parts of the valve gear, bolts, washers, and bearings hâve hecome ivorn. —-The wearing of these parts reduces the opening period of the valves, the products of combustion cannot be completely discharged, the charge contains more gases of combustion and less mixture, resulting in low working pressures.
  - (h.) The gearingpinions are displaced, and the teeth are not in rnesh correctly. —The taking down of the gearing of internai combustion engines is a rare occurrence, but just because it is but seldom necessary, it may happen that on potting the engine together again the driver does not pay sufficient heed to the marks made on the teeth. If the teeth are shifted to any great extent, the engine will not run ; if there is a différence of only one or a few teeth, the engine will run, but it will develop a much smaller power. When an engine is found to develop less power after the lay-shaft has been removed and replaced, it is practically certain that the wrong teeth in the pinions are in gear.
  - 8. Explosions occur while drawing in the Charge.
  - The causes of this are : (a.) Formation of slowly burning mixtures, (b.) Im-perfect cooling. (c.) Burning of lubricating oil vapours. (d.) lted-hot carbonised oil partieles or asbestos fibres, (e.) “Pockets” inside the combustion chamber.
  - Explanation. — Explosion during the suction period, or back-firing, is always due to a prématuré ignition of the charge on entrance into the working cylinder, while the inlet valve is still open. This bclongs to the most annoying class of troubles, and is frequently most ditficult to remedy. As a possible course, under (a) is given the formation of slow-burning mixtures, due to insutlicient amount of fuel or too large a proportion of combustion residues.
  - If there is only a small proportion of fuel, the combustion of the charge proceeds so slowly, that the flame remains in the cylinder during the exhaust period and also during the commencement of the suction period, producing there an undesirable means of ignition which cornes into action at quite the wrong period, and the suddenly formed gases of combustion rush out with more or less noise through the open inlet valve.
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  - (b.) Imperfect cooïing.—The higlier the température of the combustion chamber walls, the higlier is the température of the residues that remain there, and the greater the risk of the fresh charge becoming ignited on enter-ing. The larger the engine, the thicker are the walls of the combustion chamber and, in tliis case, the longer it takes to cool tliem, resulting probably in more frequent back-fires, especially wlien the engine is running at a liigh speed. In large engines, therefore, the température of the cooling water must not rise so high as with small ones.
  - (c.) Burning of lubricating oil vapours.—The cylinders are usually lubri-cated with minerai oil. As the combustion température in the cylinder rises much higher than the température of distillation of the oil, oil vapours are produced which, under normal conditions, burn with the charge, doing useful work. But should the mixture of these oil vapours with the charge be incomplète, or should it not contain a sufficient proportion of air, it burns much more slowly than the correct charge, and tliis slow burning may resuit in the firing of the following charge.
  - A peculiar point about baek-firing is that the explosions always occur singly, after short or long intervals. Tliis is easily explained. When a back-fire occurs, more or less of the cylinder surface lias been laid bare, almost the wliole of the oil-covered surface is exposed to the high température of combustion, and large quantifies of oil vapours are formed and driven out through the iulet valve. Another ignition does not follow immediately, because the air-pipe and suction passages do not contain air, but the products of combustion resulting from the back-firing. The cylinder cools down somewhat, the excess of lubricating oil bas been carried away, and for a time normal running proceeds. By using a heavier lubricating oil and reducing lubrication, the irregularity may be minimised.
  - (d.) Incandescent carbonised oil or asbestos fibres.—When the combustion chamber, the exhaust valve, and piston are not sufficiently cleaned, particles of carbonised oil are easily deposited, become red-hot, and lead to prématuré ignition of the entering charge. Small pièces of asbestos libre which find tlieir way into these parts may hâve similar effects. The asbestos packing must always be eut cloan and held securely in place. Good engines, however, bave no asbestos packing, but are made throughout with ground joints ; these need to be handled with care, but they are the best and most reliable and do not leak.
  - (e.) “ Pocket s ” which are in direct connection with the explosion chamber.— Tliis cause of back-firing is but little known. The space need not be large, and the 10 mms. (§ in.) bore of the indicator mounting, or the bore for the oil-cock, or that for the water drain-cock, which is found still in the older types of engines on the ignition tube, may be quite sufficient to cause tliis trouble.
  - Explanation.—The blind holes of different length become filled with gases of combustion after the working-stroke ; on compression, inflammable mixture is driven inside tliem, and there is thus formed a slow-burning mixture which increases while the new charge is being drawn in. Towards the middle of the
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- - 264
  - OU, MOTORS.
  - suction-stroke, when the piston travels faster and a greater vacuum is formed inside the cylinder, the (lame issues from its “ hiding-place ” and ignites the mixture in the cylinder.
  - The boring for indicator cocks must therefore be closed by a screw plug whicli fills it up completely. The oil drain-cocks must be made very narrow or replaced by valves.
  - 9. Knocking Occurs in the Engine.
  - Siuce tlie time when high-speed engines working with liigh compression and electric ignition were built, it bas become necessary to make it possible to regulate the timing of ignition, and one of the duties of the driver is to be familiar with present-day conditions. When ignition is too late, power is lost ; if it occurs too early, the engine runs more stifïiy, and bad knocking occurs from time to time. With a hot tube, ignition may also occur prema-turely, and the engine runs stifïiy, power is decreased, and the life of the engine reduced. Prématuré and irregular ignition with the tube occurs with short, wdde, and also conical-shaped tubes. The evil is lessened by reducing the opeuing of the tube in the combustion chamber, by inserting inside it a wrought-iron ferrule.
  - Knocking of a spécial character occurs in paraflin and petrol engines. These fuels, and especially parafiin, wdthstand only a low compression, as they bave a very low ignition température. If, added to this, the engine is in-sufïiciently cooled and runs at a liigh speed, the charge ignites before the dead point is reached, simply ovving to the heat of compression. This kind of ignition is of quite a different nature to the ordinary ignition which starts from one point ; it lias the character of a véritable explosion, resulting in the general and complote ignition of the mixture. The knocks so caused are violent and extremely detrimental to the engine, and the fracture of crank-shafts and crank-shaft bearings may be the resuit. This explains the loss of propeller blades in motor-boats.
  - Knocking caused by the wear of separate parts of the mochanism is régular in occurrence, while compression ignitions occur singly in most cases, and only after running températures hâve been reached.
  - The parts the most liable to wear are the gudgeon pin, the flywheel key, and the crank bearing. Since about the middle of the ’eighties, when the greater number of engine-builders ceased to key the flywheel on the cylindri-cal seating of the sliaft, and took to shrinking it on to a tapered lit, knocking due to a loosened key no longer occurs. When, liowever, the flywheel and locking mit are not sufficiently tight, and no safety arrangement is provided, the engine stops still with a sudden jerk and the flywheel works loose on the shaft.
  - 10. The Engine runs at too high a Speed.
  - The cause of periodieal or constant excessive speed in the engine is always traceable to the governor. A periodic increase and decrease in speed
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- - ON CORRECTING IRREGULAllITIES IN RUNNING.
  - 265
  - occurs when the governor is insufficiently lubricated or is worn. When the engine runs steadily at too high a speed, this is usually due to defective governor gear. When the governor is not carefully attended to, the lubrica-tion ports become foui and uo oil reaclies the governor spindle or ring, friction is set up, the teeth of the pi nions break, or, if the governor is driven by a belt,1 this may fall off and the engine get out of control. Sliould the belt fall by reason of the high speed of the engine, the occurrence is a most serious one. The flywheel may break, the connecting rod bolts may shear off, and the engine in such a case will break down completely.
  - Dangers and Précautions with Internai Combustion Engines.
  - Every engine lias its own peculiar dangers, and the driver must make himself acquainted with these in order to guard against thern. With internai combustion engines the principal dangers are from fire or explosion due to the kind of fuel they use.
  - Eire and explosion risks are entailed by leakage of the fuel supply pipes, and the driver must therefore make sure that ail connections are tight. When pipes hâve been removed and replaced, ail connections and llanges must be screvved up tight and tested for leaks. Most of the petrol engines now used are so built that the fuel is supplied to tliem under a very low pressure, either by placing the fuel tank at a level slightly higher than the engine, or by creating a pressure inside the tank. As soon, therefore, as a leak occurs at any part of the piping, the vvhole tank empties itself. The fuel runs into the engine-room, and fires or explosions canuot be prevented if this sliould catch alight.
  - Notwithstanding ail the régulations laid down by the Insurance Companies, the greatest care must be exerted.
  - The greatest risks for the driver himself arise from the easily volatilised fuel residues which may remain in the engine. Wlicn an engine in whicli an unignited mixture lias remained, is opened out, either by removing a valve or removing the piston, the mixture may become ignited if the ignition is electric and the engine is revolved. A large flame tlien issues from the open valve or from the cylinder opening.
  - In such cases, the driver has often been severely burnt ; the accident may be provided against by taking care to see that ùefore any work be undertaken on the engine, ignition is eut out ; tlien a lighfc is lield, from a distance, inside the cylinder to ignite the charge or portion of a charge that may remain.
  - Ail persons occupied in such inspection of engines must receive due notice of the risks in question. No man must be allowed to revolve the flywheel by pressing with his foot on the wlieel arms, or taking liold of the rim in such a way that his arm extends through the wlieel between the spokes. The flywheel must al way s be drawn towards one either by taking hold of the arms or the rim, and not driven away from one. In this operation a firm foothold
  - 1 The driving of the governor by a belt is daugerous and sliould never be adopted.
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- - 266
  - OIL MOTORS.
  - must be secured ; efforts sliould be abandoned as soon as it is fourni that tliey are not sufficient to overcome compression.
  - Inspection of the inside of a heating-lamp chimney or cowl sliould never be permitted during running. It bas very often happened that the ignition tube has cracked at the very instant it was being seen to, and hot porcelain splinters and particles of hot asbestos fibre hâve been driven in the attendante eyes. The danger is greatly increased when, during inspection, the lamp or the chimney are displaced in any way.
  - In a general way, mention may also be made of the dangers arising from lack of protection of flywkeels, belts, shafts, and toothed gearing. In these directions protective measures hâve only too often been ignored. Protective wire-netting guards for flywheels, belts, etc., are effective only when made higli enough to prevent pcrsons leaning on tliem. As far as it is practicable, ail engines sliould be provided with compressed-air starting arrangement.
  - The wiping and handling of moving engine parts sliould be forbidden, and the driver sliould not, above ail tliings, approacli toothed gears with cleaning waste, for even when tliese are protected with covers, threads of the waste may become seized by the gear and may draw in the driver’s hand before lie can free himself. The action of a number of fitters and drivers of taking hold of the connecting rod when the engine is running, or in allowing the connecting rod end to toucli the hand to sec wbether the bearing is loose or is running hot, is always a dangerous practice. Ail works now fit a cover over the crankshaft and connecting rod, so that tliis cannot be donc with modem engines.
- p.266 - vue 284/354
- - INDEX.
  - Aocessibiliïy of liquid-fuel engines, 238. Adler-Fahrradwerke automatic carburettor, 52.
  - automobile engines, 142. contrifugal governor, 68.
  - Admission governing, 66.
  - Agricultural installations driven by liquid-fuel engines, 243.
  - Air- and water-pumps, motor-driven, 225. -cooler for liquid-fuel engines, 242. -cooling of cycle engines, 156.
  - -gas from petroleum distillâtes, 4. supply pipe of liquid-fuel engines, 240. Airship construction, history and development, 213.
  - engine, “Antoinette,” 178. engine, Kiirting’s, 177. engines, 213.
  - Akroyd paraffin engine, 32. pump, 34.
  - Alcoliol and benzol mixtures, 16, 17. and petrol stationary engines, 92. as liquid fuel, 7. as liquid fuel, prices of, 7. caloriiic value of, 16. cliaracteristics of, 16. compressibility of, 17. engines, decrease in number of, 8. lire and explosion risks, storage, 17. future of, for beat, power and liglit, 8. mixture formation and ignition, 17. stationary engines : conditions ruling tlieir installation in Germany, 243. Aluminium in automobile engines, iirst use of, 140.
  - American oil-iields, 1,
  - Animal life the origin of petroleum, 2. “Antoinette” sixteen -cylinder airship engine, 178.
  - Asphalt, its origin, 2.
  - Attendanco of liquid-fuel engines, 237, 251. Automobile construction, history and development of, 180.
  - engines, liistory and development of, 137. Automobiles of recent construction, 182.
  - Balboon engines, 213.
  - Bânki carburettor for oil and petrol, 50, 57.
  - stationary liquid-fuel engines, 124, 127. Barnett English patent of 1838, 18.
  - “ Bayard” châssis, gear and cars, 188. four-cylinder automobile engine, 151.
  - Benz automobile engine, 139. early attempts at motor-car construction, 181.
  - ignition device, 84.
  - Benzol and alcoliol mixtures, 16, 17. caloriiic value of, 15. cliaracteristics of, 15. distilled from coal tar, 5. extraeted from coke-oven gases, 6. iire-risks of, 15.
  - liigli compressibility of mixture of, 15. in lighting gas, 6. mixture of, with air, 15. prices of, 6, 15.
  - resolved into its component parts, 6. uses of, 6.
  - Bieberstein dynamo ear, motor-driven, 233. engine-driven dynamo, 234. locomobiles, 222. motor boat, 216.
  - Bituminous substances, tlieir origin, 2. Blade-shifting device for motor-boat pro-pellers, 204, 210.
  - Blanke & Rast lubricating pump, 74. oil-filter, 75.
  - Boat and sliip engines, tlieir history and development, 163.
  - Boats driven by internai combustion engines, 204.
  - Boring for petroleum, iirst carried out in 1859, at Titusville, 2.
  - Bosch adjustable contact heating device, 89. electric ignition, 80. high-tension ignition apparatus, 87. plug for, 88.
  - ignition ax>paratus, with rotary armature, 89.
  - magneto-ignition plug ( llonold System), 90. Brayton petrol engine, 20. Bronsmotorenfabrik stationary paraffin engine, 136.
  - Brown coal distillate : “ Solarol,” 7. distillation, by-products of, 7. liquid distillâtes of, 5.
  - By-products of brown coal distillation, 7.
  - Cable terminal eye, 91.
  - Caloriiic value of alcoliol, 16. of “ergin,” 16. of paraffin oil or kerosene, 12. of petrol, 10.
  - Canadian oil-iields, 1.
  - 267
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- - 268
  - INDEX.
  - Canello-Durkopp automobile engiue, 140. Capitaine carburettor, 56. oil-lieating lamps, 63. paraffin engine, 29. carburettor, 31. governor, 31.
  - Carburettor, Adler Fahrradwerke automatic, 52.
  - Bânki’s, 50.
  - for oil and petrol, 57.
  - Capitaine’s, 56.
  - Clément’s, 53.
  - Daimler’s, 26, 51, 163. for heavy fuels, 55. for liglit fuels, 48.
  - Korting’s, for stationary engines, 50. Longuemare’s, 53. for lieavy fuel, 57. latest type, 54.
  - Neckarsulmer Compauy’s, 54. of Capitaine engine, 31. of “ La M otosacoche,” 157.
  - Ceutrifugal governor, Adler-Ealirradwerke’s,
  - 68.
  - Daimler Co.’s, 68.
  - Characteristics of liquid fuels, 9.
  - Châssis of six-cylinder “ Hexe ” car, 187. of various cars, 188.
  - Claudel carburettor witli “Hexe” automobile engine, 148.
  - Cleaning of engines, liovv to procced in the, 252.
  - Clément’s carburettor, 53.
  - Coal gases, 5.
  - liquid distillâtes of, 5. origin of, 5.
  - -tar distillâtes, 5.
  - Coke-ovcn gases, benzol extractcd from, 6. Combustion cbamber, its construction, 42. Component parts of paraffin and petrol engines, 41.
  - Compressed air starting and reversing for boat engines, 210.
  - Compression pressure sufficieut for igniting paraffin, 14.
  - Conditions ruling in Germany for stationary liquid-fuel engines, 247.
  - Connections of high-tension ignition appar-atus, 88.
  - Construction of paraffin and petrol engines, 39.
  - Contact-breaker oftlie Neckarsulmer Co., 86. Contact-breaking device, Bosch adjustable, 89.
  - ignition, 83.
  - Cooling jacket of Deutz stationary engines,
  - 1Ô0.
  - of liquid-fuel engines, 240. tank arrangement, 240. with water undcr pressure, 240.
  - Crâne, engine-driven, the “ Oberurscl,” 232. Crank cbamber of engines, 41.
  - shaft of six-cylinder “ Hexe ” automobile engine, 151.
  - Crude benzol distilled from coal tar, 5. usesof, 6.
  - oil and paraffin stationary engines, 126.
  - Crude petrolcum : its composition, 3.
  - and its distillâtes, 1.
  - Cut-out governing, 66.
  - Cycle engines, 154.
  - “ Cyklon ” three-wheeled motor car, 188. Cylinder lubricating apparatus, 73. lubrication, 71.
  - of engines : its construction, 41.
  - Daiml^k car, driven by combustion engine : the first attempt, 180. carburettor, 26, 51, 163.
  - Co’s. ceutrifugal governor, 68. cycle, driven by combustion engine, the first attempt, 180. engine-driven fire-engine, 231.
  - rail car of 1887, 201. engine : the first boat engine, 163. engines for boat propulsion, 204. four-cylinder automobile engine, 146. friction gear for motor boats, 204. inventer of automatic hot tube ignition, 76.
  - motor boat internai arrangement, 208. the first, 208.
  - motor-driven railway carriagc, 203.
  - trolley, 203. motor omnibus, 192. petrol engine, 24.
  - pressure devices for heating lamps, 62.
  - “ sunnner car,” 201. tube ignition device, 25, 76.
  - Dairy mechanically driven, 245.
  - Dangers, and précautions to be taken, with engines, 254.
  - Do Dion-Bouton automobile engine, 140. ignition device, 84. sparking-plug, 84.
  - Deutz engine-driven air-eompressors, 230. locomotives, 204. pumps, 227.
  - liquid-fuel stationary engines, 98. locomobiles, 220. lubricator, 74. paraffin boat engine, 170. piston ring stud, 45. pressure pump for lubrication, 74. stationary engines, details of, 102. stationary vertical high-specd engines, 103.
  - vertical stationary engines, details of, 105. Diesel engine air-pump, 129. engine fuel-pump, 59. engines, 28.
  - in passengor and cargo sliip, 217. in Russian gunboat, 218. experimental engine, first built, 35.
  - second built, 36. stationary paraffin engine, 128.
  - details of, 130, 133. two-cycle engines for boats, 210.
  - Dirigible balloon engines, 213.
  - Distillâtes, liquid, of minerai coal, 5. of petroleum, 1. classification of, 3. grouping of, 4. tlieir uses, 4.
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- - INDEX.
  - 269
  - Dynamo car, motor-driven, by Bieberstein, 233.
  - engine-driven, by Bieberstein, 234. used for driving propeller sliaft, 210.
  - Electric contact-breaking ignition, 83. drive of propeller sliaft, 210.
  - of veliicles coupled to liquid-fuel engine,
  - 210.
  - ignition, 79. mounting, 83. of Tangyes engines, 119.
  - Engine frame and crank chamber, 41.
  - oil, distilled from petroleum, 4. Engine-room of passenger and cargo sliip, sliowing Diesel engines, 217.
  - Erection and attendance of liquid fuel engines, 237.
  - “ Ergin,” a mixture of benzol distillâtes, 6. and alcohol mixtures, 16, 17. fire risks and régulations, 16. mixture formation witli, 16. production, calorific value and priée of, 16. Ernst Eisemann & Co.’s improvcments to electric ignition, 85.
  - Exhaust pipe of liquid-fuel engines, 239. Extraction of liquid fuels, 1.
  - Fats, liquid fuel from, 7.
  - Feed pump for starting Tangyes engines, 119.
  - Filter, tlie Blanke & Rast oil, 75.
  - Korting’s wire gauze, 60.
  - Longuemare’s, for automobiles, 60. wire gauze, 60.
  - Fire-engine, Daimler engine-driven, 231.
  - Fire risks witli paraffin engines, 14.
  - witli petrol engines, 11.
  - Fischer cable terminal eye, 91. magneto-electric ignition apparatus, 83. safety crank for starting, 70.
  - Flywlieel governor, Korting’s, 68. Foundations for liquid-fuel engines, 237, 239. Four-cylinder Àdlerwerke automobile engine, 142.
  - “Bayard” automobile engine, 151. Daimler automobile engine, 146. Swiderski automobile engine, 152.
  - Friction gear for motor boats, Daimler, 204. Fuel filters, 60. liquid, derived from coal, 5. pumps, 58.
  - Funk, patentée for an ignition tube, 77.
  - German oil-fields, 1.
  - “ Gnom ” vertical engines, details of, 113. Governing of engines, methodsavailable, 65. Governor of Capitaine engine, 31.
  - Governors for engines, 65.
  - Grob & Co. ’s réversible propeller, 209. valveless oil-pump, 59. wood-sawing and cutting machine, engine-driven, 236.
  - Ground for foundations of liquid-fuel engines, 237.
  - Gudgeon pins, types of, 44.
  - Gunboat equipped witli Diesel engines, 218.
  - Hanoyer oil-fields at Peine, 1.
  - Haselwander and Trinkler engines, 27. Heating lamps for oil and petrol engines, 61.
  - Ileavy fuel carburettors, 55.
  - “Hexe” six-cylinder automobile engine, 148.
  - six-cylinder car, châssis of, 187. Iligh-tension ignition, advantages of, 85. diagram of connections for, 88. plug, Bosch, 88.
  - Hit and miss governing, 66.
  - Ilock engine huilt in 1873, 18.
  - Ilomogengas from petroleum distillâtes, 4. Honold System of magneto-ignition plug, 90. Horizontal engine frame, with cylinder liner, 41.
  - trunk piston type, 40. type with crosshead guide, 40. Hornsby-Akroyd paraffin engine, 32. Ilot-tube ignition, 25, 76. sections, 78.
  - Hydrirene, spécifie gravity of, 4. Ilydrocarbons, liquid, from coal tar, 5.
  - Iiînition dcvices for oil and petrol engines, 76.
  - metliods and régulations with petrol engines, 11.
  - of Deutz stationary engines, 101. of Korting stationary engines, 95. of paralfin, 13.
  - Illuminating oils, spécifie gravity of, 4. Inclined engine type, crank-shaft below, 40. Inertia governor, Krupp’s, 67. Inflammability of petroleum distillâtes, 5. Installations driven by liquid-fuel engines, 243.
  - Irregularities in running, correction of, 254.
  - Galician oil-fields, 1.
  - Ganz engine-driven plough, 232. locomobiles, 224.
  - Gardner one-cyliiuler paraflin boat engine, 171.
  - stationary engines, 115. details of, 117.
  - two-cylinder paraffin boat engine, 172. Gases from coal, 5.
  - Gasolenes, spécifie gravity of, 4.
  - Gasoline gas engines of Otto & Langen, 1S. German conditions ruling tlie installation of liquid-fuel engines, 247.
  - Ramper boat engines, 173. and winch-driving engines,details of, 175.
  - Kerosene, calorific value of, 12. characteristics of, 12. distillated from petroleum, 3. price of, 12.
  - Kjelsberg paraffin engine, 28.
  - Korff, Bremen, distillâtes obtained by, 3. petrol, spécifie gravity of, 4.
  - Kürting airship engine, 177. carburettor for stationary engines, 50. cylinder lubricator, 7 4. engine-driven pumps, 227.
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- - 270
  - INDEX.
  - Korting engine-driven traverser, 235. liywheel governor, 68. liquid-fuel stationary engines, 92. ignition, 95.
  - paraflin engine for submarines, 169. radiator, 241.
  - stationary engines, details of, 97. water-work installation, inotor-driven, 225.
  - wire gauze filter, 60.
  - Krupp inertia governor, 67.
  - “ La Motosacoohe ” carburettor, 157. cycle engine, 158. raotor cycle, 199.
  - Lamps, lieating, for oil and petrol engines,
  - 6i.
  - Lenoir’s electric ignition, 79.
  - Lieut. Troost’s motor-driven tractor, 199. Liglit fuel carburettors, 48.
  - Ligliting oils, spécifie gravity of, 4,
  - Liquid distillâtes of minerai coal, 5. Liquid-fuel engines and steam engines com-pared, 180.
  - coupled to dynamos on boats and vehicles,
  - 210.
  - driving various installations, 243. engine installations : conditions in force in Gennany, 247.
  - Liquid fuels, cliaracteristics of, 9. classification of, 9. for power production, 9. from various substances, 7. tlieir origin and extraction, 1.
  - Location of liquid-fuel engines, 238. Locomobiles, liquid-fuel engine-driven, 220. Locomotive, motor-driven, for field and forest track, 205.
  - Locomotives, engine-driven, 204. Longuemare carburettor, 53. for lieavy fuel, 57. latest type, 54. filter for automobiles, 60. wire gauze filter, 60.
  - Lubricating apparatus for cylindcrs, 73. oils distillated from petrolcum, 3. pump, tire Blanke & Raste, 74. the Deutz, 74.
  - Lubrication of cylindcrs, 71.
  - Lubricator of the Deutz Co., 74. of the Korting Co., 74.
  - Magnéto-eeectuic ignition, 84. Maschinenfabrik “Oyklon” cycle engine, 162.
  - “ Maurer-Union” automobile engines, 154.
  - châssis, gear and carriage body, 188. Mechanically driven agricultural plants and dairies, 243.
  - Meissner réversible propeller, 211.
  - “ Mercedes Simplex” châssis, gear and cars, 188.
  - Minerai oil and its distillâtes, 1. tar : its origin, 2.
  - Mining locomotive, motor-driven, 206, 207. Mixture governing, 66.
  - Mixture of alcoliol and “ergin,” method of making, 17.
  - of fuel in paraflin and petrol engines, 47. of paraflin and air, dilliculties experienced witli, 12.
  - of petrol and air : rapidity of tlieir formation, 11.
  - Motor boats of recent construction, 204. car engines : tlieir liistory and development, 137.
  - cars of recent construction, 182. cycle construction, liistory and development of, 180.
  - •driven water- and air-pumps, 225. omnibus, Daimler, 192. petrol, spécifie gravity of, 4.
  - Naphtha and its distillâtes, 1. Neclcarsulmer Company’s carburettor, 54. contact-breaker, 86. cycle engine, 156. motor tricycle, 198. sparking-plug, 85.
  - Nortli American oil-iields, 1.
  - “ OiiEuuitsEL ” engine driven crâne, 232. locomotives, 204. winding winch, 231. horizontal engines, details of, 112. locomobiles, 220. stationary engines, 109. vertical engines, details of, 113.
  - Oil engine development, 27. fields : tlieir location, 1. filter, the Blank k Rast, 75. of turpontine substitutc, spécifie gravity of, 4.
  - pump of the Swiderski engine, 58.
  - Oils for lubrication : tlieir cliaracteristics, 71. Omnibus, Daimler motor-driven, 192. Onmibuses driven by liquid-fuel engine and dynamo, 210.
  - One-cylinder, Gard lier, paraflin boat engine, 171.
  - “ Maurer-Union” engine, 154.
  - Origin of liquid fuels, 1.
  - Otto, N. A., invents four-stroke-cyclc compression gas engine, 22. k Langen engines of 1867, 18.
  - Overhanging propeller by the Cudcll Co.,
  - 211.
  - Ozokerite: its origin, 2.
  - Pauaefin and air, difïiculty in forming mixture of, 12.
  - and crude oil stationary engines, 126. and petrol engines, component parts of, 41. construction of, 39. iirst built, 18. working of, 38. boat engine, Deutz, 170.
  - Gardner one-cylinder, 171.
  - Gardner two-cylinder, 172.
  - Korting, for submarines, 169. distillated from petrolcum, 3. engine development, 27. engine-driven installations, 243.
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- - INDEX. • 271
  - Paraffin engines, characteristics of, 27. ignition, fire risks and régulations, 14. inflammability of, 13. oil, calorific value of, 12. characteristics of, 12. price of, 12.
  - précautions for transport and storage of, 14.
  - stationary engines : conditions ruling their installation in Germany, 250. two-cylinder, Swiderski, boat enginc, 164. Peat, liquid fuel from, 7.
  - Peine (Hanover) oil-field, 1.
  - Pennsylvanian oil-lields, 1.
  - Petrol-air mixtures, inflammability of, 11. Petrol and alcoliol stationary engines, 92. and paraffin engines, component parts of, 41.
  - construction of, 39. first built, 18. working of, 38.
  - Petrol, calorific value of, 10. characteristics of, 10. engine-driven installations, 243. engine, the first, driving a railway veliicle, 24, 201.
  - engines, ignition, fire risks and régulations,
  - 11.
  - for automobiles, spécifie gravity of, 4. for cleaning, spécifie gravity of, 4. for ligliting, spécifie gravity of, 4. for stationary engines, spécifie gravity of, 4,
  - methods of ignition, 11. jirice of, 10.
  - stationary engines : conditions ruling their installation in Germany, 247. vapours : rapidity of mixture with air, 11. Petroleum and its distillâtes, 1. as fuel, 3. composition of, 3. distillâtes, classification of, 3. inflammability of, 5. spécifie gravity of, 4. tlieir uses, 4.
  - etlier, spécifie gravity of, 4. for médicinal purposos, 3.
  - Refining Co. ’s distillâtes, 3. spécifie gravity of, 3.
  - Piston of engines : its construction, 43. ring manufacture, 44. ring studs, 45. with lixed gudgeon, 44. with movable gudgeon, 44.
  - Pivoting propeller and engine by the Cudell Co., 211.
  - Plougli, engine-driven, the Ganz, 232.
  - Plug for Bosch high-tension ignition, 88. Porcelain hot-tube sections, 7S.
  - Portable engines, 220.
  - Potato spirit as liquid fuel, 7.
  - Power-driven vehicles, history and development of, 180.
  - Power production, liquid fuel for, 9. Précautions to be taken with engines, 254. Pressure pump for lubrication, the Deutz, 74.
  - Propeller and engine, pivoting device by the Cudell Co., 211. blade reversing device, 210. types for motor boats, 204.
  - Pump, Diesel engine fuel-, 59. air-, 129.
  - Grob valveless oil-, 59.
  - of the Akroyd paraffin engine, 34.
  - oil-, of the Swiderski engine, 58.
  - Pumps, motor-driven,' 225.
  - Putziil, spécifie gravity of, 4.
  - Qualitative régulation of engines, 66. Quantitative régulation of engines, 66.
  - Ramating ribs on cycle engine cylinders, 156.
  - Radiators for engine cooling, 211.
  - Rail car built by Daimler in 1887, 201. vehicles driven by combustion engines, 201.
  - driven by internai combustion engines, 180.
  - Railway carriage, Daimler motor-driven, 203.
  - vehicle driven bya petrol engine, the first, 24, 201.
  - Retarding ignition for governing, 67. Réversible propeller, by Grob & Co., 209. by K. Meissner, 211. propellers for motor boats, 205.
  - Reversing of engines by compressed air, 210.
  - gears for boat engines, 211.
  - Rhigolene, spécifie gravity of, 4.
  - Road vehicles driven by internai combustion engines, 180.
  - Rock oil and its distillâtes, 1.
  - Roll-mill driven by liquid-fuel engine, 246. Rosins, liquid fuel from, 7.
  - Roumanian oil-field s, 1.
  - Running of engines : attendance required, 251.
  - Russian gunboat, showing Diesel engines, 218.
  - oil-lields, 1.
  - Riitgerswerke Co.’s improvements in benzol production, 16. treatment of benzol, 6.
  - Safety crank for starting, Fischcr’s, 70.
  - Sail propeller for motor-boats, 204.
  - Ship and boat engines : their history and development, 163.
  - Shunting locomotive, motor-driven, 206, 207. Similis-liosch ignition with “Bayard’' engine, 151.
  - Six-cylindcr “Hexe” automobile engine, 148.
  - Hexe ” car, châssis of, 187.
  - Kbrting submarine engine, 169.
  - “ Sleipncr ” boat engines, 164. details of, 167.
  - Sohnlein stationary engines, 121. details of, 123.
  - “Solariil,” obtained from brown coal, 7. Sparking pings, 84.
  - Spécifie gravity of crude petroleum, 3.
- p.271 - vue 289/354
- - 272
  - INDEX.
  - Spécifie gravity of petroleum distillâtes, 4. Speed governors for engines, 65.
  - Spirit, potato, as liquid fuel, 7. Standardisation of automobile engines, 138. Starting and reversing engines by compressed air, 210.
  - crank, Fischer’s safety, 70. devices, 69.
  - of engines, instructions for tlie, 251. Stationary engine carburettor, Kbrting’s, 50. engines on railways, 138. engines using paraffin and crude oil, 126. Longuemare’s, 53.
  - liquid-fuel engines : conditions ruling in Germany, 247.
  - petrol and alcohol engines, 92.
  - Steam engines and liquid-fuel engines com-pared, 180.
  - Stopping tlie engine, liow to proceed for, 252.
  - Submarine boat engines using paraffin, 169. Supply and mixture of fuel, 47.
  - Swedish oil-heating lamp, 64.
  - Swiderski engine-driven pumps, 226. engine oil-pump, 58. engine on Troost tractor, 201, lbur-cylinder automobile engine, 152. locomobiles, 225.
  - paraffin engine for lieavy cars, 153. stationary engines, 106. two-cylinder paraffin boat engine, 164.
  - Tangye’s alcohol engine, 120. engine-driven pumps, 229. locomobiles, 223. piston-ring stud, 45. stationary engines, 118.
  - Tar distillâtes, 5.
  - Terminal eye for cables, the Fischer, 91. Thornycroft boat engines, 175. racing boat, 215.
  - Titusville (Pennsylvania), first tube well at, 2.
  - Traction engines : their liistory and develop-ment, 137.
  - Tractor, motor-driven, by Lient. Troost, 199. Transmission of liquid-fuel engines, location for, 238.
  - gears for boat engines, 211.
  - Transport of lieavy parts of engines, 238. Traverser, engine-driven, by Korting, 235. Trinkler and Haselwander engines, 27.
  - Trinkler stationary engine, 134.
  - Trolley, Daimler, motor-driven, 203.
  - Troost’s motor-driven tractor, 199.
  - Troubles witli engines : their cause and remedies, 254.
  - Tube-ignition device, the Daimler, 25, 76.
  - the Fuuk, 77.
  - Tube well, the first, 2.
  - Two-cylinder, Gardner, paraffin boat engine, 172.
  - Swiderski, paraffin boat engine, 164.
  - “ Union ” automobile engines, 154.
  - châssis, gear and carriage body, 188.
  - Uses of petroleum distillâtes, 4.
  - Valve arrangement of engines, 42.
  - of Trinkler engine, details of, 135.
  - Valves : their arrangement, 46.
  - Vaporiser of Deutz stationary engines, 100. Vehicles driven by liquid-fuel engine and dynamo, 210.
  - power-driven, liistory and development of, 180.
  - Veloyene, spécifie gravity of, 4.
  - Verdau Gompany’s piston ring stud, 45. Vertical engine frame, witli cylinder liner, 42.
  - type, crankshaft above, 40. cranksliaft below, 40.
  - “ Ville de Paris ” airsliip, 219.
  - WANDEiiER-Fahrradwerke cycle engine, 161. motor cycle, 198.
  - Water- and air-pumps, motor-driven, 225.
  - cooling of liquid-fuel engines, 240. Weights of engines for traction purposes, 138.
  - Well, the first tube, 2.
  - Winch-driving engines, Ramper, details of, 175.
  - Winding winch, engine-driven, the “ Ober-ursel,” 231.
  - Wittig & Ilees petrol engine, 22.
  - Wood, liquid fuel from, 7.
  - -sawing and cutting machine, engine-driven, 236.
  - Working cylinder of engines, 41. of paraliin and petrol engines, 38.
  - Zeppelin airship, 219.
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  - Contents.—Introductory Uemarks.—Early Direct-acting Steam Pumping Engines.— Waterworks Pumping Engines, Rotary Class.—Waterworks Pumping Engines, Direct-acting Duplex Class.—Differential Non-rotative Pumping Engines.— Mine Pumps, Force Pumps, and Sinking Pumps.—Suction and Delivery Valves.—Boring Appliances for Artesian Tube Wells.—Artesian Well or Borehole Plunger and Air-lift Pumps.— Appliances for Raising Petroleum from Artesian or Borehole Wells.—Boiler-feed and General Service Pumps.—Injectors, Jet Pumps, and Ejectors.—Vacuum and Condenser Pumps.—Hydraulic Power Pumps, Ram Pumps, and Steam, Air, and Gas-power Displacement Pumps.—Fire Pumps and High-speed Plunger Pumps.—Variable-delivery Pumps and Variable Transmission by Hydraulic Power.—Massecuite, Rotary, Oscillating and Wind-power Pumps.—Low-lift and High-lift Centrifugal Pumps.—Hydraulic Power Wheels.—Indbx.
  - " ThiB work is a véritable cncyclopædia . . . with excellent and abundant dia-.grams.”—Times Engineering Supplément.
  - See also Practical Hydraulics for Mining Students, Prof. J. Pare, p. 55 Gen. Cat.
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  - Contents.—Ordnance Maps.—Chain Surveying.—Surveying with Angular Instruments.—Levelling.—Adjustment of Instruments.—Mensuration of Areas, Volumes,. <fec.— The Mechanics of Engineering, &c.—Beams.—Pillars, Stancliions and Shafting. —Design of Structure.—Arches.—Graphie Statics.—Materials of Construction.— Engineering Foundations.—Brickwork and Masonry.—Walls.—Construetional Car-pentering.—Road Materials.— Road Construction.—Reinforced Concrète Construction. —Masonry Bridges and River Work.—Hydraulics.—Land Drainage.—Pumping Machinery and Stations.—The Use of Water-Power.—Main Drainage.—Sewage Disposai.—Royal Commission on Sewage Disposai.—Salford Sewage Works.—Sanitation, House Drainage and Disinfection.—Refuse Disposai.—Waterworks, Preliminary Considérations and Sources of Supply.—Construction, Filtration and Purification.—Water-works.—Dis-trinution.—Chimneys, Brick and Steel.—Steel Construction; Stancliions, Rivets and Bolts.—Steel Construction ; Beams and Girders.—Combined Structures in Iron and Steel.—Spécification.—Electric Tramways.—Appendix.—Index.
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  - Contents.—Some Alternative Methods of Refuse Disposai.—Représentative Types ol British Destructors.—Systems of Charging Destructors.—Destructors combined with Sewage Works.—With Electricity Works.—Refuse Destruction in U.K.—Site.—Spécifications.—Design and Operation.—Operative Costs.—Residuals.—Foreign and Colonial Practice.—Index.
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  - REFUSE DISPOSAI.
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  - struction.—Vacuum Cleaning and Dust Collecting.—Index.
  - “ Absolutely reliable . . . The value of such a Treatiseto the Municipal Engineer, to members yf Local Autliorities and otliers interested in the subject cannot well be over-estimated.”—Municipal Journal.
  - MODERN SEWAGE PURIFICATION. G. B. Kershaw. [Se,e page 23. SEWAGE TREATMENT. Dunbar and Calvert. [ ,, 23.
  - TRADE WASTE WATERS. Wilson and Calvert. [ ,, 23.
  - PRACTICAL SANITATION. Dr. Geo. Reid. [ „ 23.
  - SANITARY ENGINEERING. Francis Wood. [ ,, 23.
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  - Seventeenth Edition. Tlioroughly Revised and Re-set Throughout, and Greatly Enlarged. large 8vo. Cloth. Profusely Illustrated. Nearly 1000 Pages. 28s. net.
  - A MANUAL OF MARINE ENGINEERING:
  - Comprising the Designing, Construction, and Working of Marine Machinery.
  - By A. E. SEATON, M.I.C.E., M.I.Meeh.E., M.I.N.A.
  - Contents.—General Introduction.—Résistance of Sliips and Indicated Horse-power Necessary for Speed.—Marine Engines, their Types and Variations of Design .—Steam used Expansively.—Steam used after Expansion.—Turbines.— Efflciency of Marine Engines.—Engines, Simple and Compound.—Horse-power : Nominal, Indicated, and Shaft or Brake.—General Design and the Influences whicli eiïect it.—The Cylinder and lts Fittings.—The Piston, Piston-Rod, Connecting-Rod.—Shafting, Cranks and Crank-Shafts, <fcc.—Foundations, Bedplates, Columns, Guides, and Framing.—Condensera.— Pumps.—Valves and Valve Gear.—Valve Diagrams.—Propellers.—Sea-Cocks and Valves. —Auxiliary Machinery.—Boilers, Fuel, &c. ; Evaporation.—Boilers ; Tank Boiler Design and Details.—Water-Tube Boilers.—Boilers Construction and Detail.—Boiler Mount-ings and Fittings.—Fitting in Machinery.— Starting and Reversing of Engines, &c.— Weight and other Particulars of Machinery relating tliereto.—Eiïect of Weight, Inertia, and Momentum ; Balancing.—Materials used by the Marine Engineer.—Oil and Lubri-cants,Engine Friction.—Tests and Trials, their Objects and Methods. Appendices.— The Diesel and other Oil Engines, also Lloyd’s Rules relating to.—Valve Gear.—Cotterell’s Method of Constructing Inertia Curves.—Spare Gear, and B.O.T. and other Rules.— Boilers : B.O.T., Lloyd’s, Admiralty, <&c., &c., Rules relating to.—Electric Liglit, Rules.— Safety Valves, Rules.—Testing Materials, Rules, &c., &c.—Index.
  - “A monumental work . . . up-to-date.”—Marine Engineer.
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  - By A. E. SEATON, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.I.N.A., and H. M. ROUNTHWAITE, M.I.Mech.E., M.I.N.A.
  - Contents.—Prime Movers on Sliipboard.—Engine Power Measurements.—Efflciency of Marine Machinery.—Propulsion of Ships and Résistance.—Compound Engines.—Steam Expanding and Doing Work.—Piston Speeds and Révolutions of Engines.—Cylinders.— Pistons.—Piston Rods, Connecting ltods.—Shafting.—Thrust Sliafts and Blocks.— Stem Tubes.—Main Bearings of Crank Shafts.—Condensers.—Air Pumps.—Cooling Water Pumps.—Feed and other Pumps.—Bilge Pumps, Pipes, and Fittings.—Pump Levers and Gear.—Slide Valves for Steam Distribution, etc.—Valve Gears.—Reversing Gcars for Valve Motions.—Steam Tuming Gears.—Screw Propellers.—Paddle-wheel Propellers.— Sea Valves for Water Supply.—Steam Turbines.—Internai Combustion Engines.—Motor Boats, etc., using Petrol.—Superheatcd Steam.—Skin Fittings and Valves.—Résulta of Trials of Engines.—Wire Gauges.—Coppcr Pipes.—Wrouglit-iron Pipes.—Copper Pipe Flanges and Fittings.—Bronze and Cast Steel Pipes.—Pipes in General.—Stop and Regulating Valves.—Balancing Engines.—Geometry of Balancing Engines.—Boilers : their Fittings, Proportion, Construction, Evaporation (B.O.T. Rules, etc.).—Boiler Mountings and Fittings.—Furnace Fittings.—Engine and Boiler Seatings.—Steam Trawlers.—Surveys of Machinery.—Spare Gear.—Chains and Ropes.—Strengtli of Materials.—Strength of Materials, Composition and Cost.—Plates, Bars, Beams, Girders, etc.—Oils and Lubricants.—Miscellaneous Tables and Rules.—Distances of Various Ports apart.—INDEX.
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  - THE SCREW PROPEELER
  - And other Competing Instruments for Marine Propulsion.
  - By A. E. SEATON, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.I.N.A.
  - Contents.—Early History of Marine Propellers.—Modem History of Propellers.— Résistance of Ships.—On Slip, Cavitation and Racing.—Paddle Wheels.—Hydraulic Propulsion.—The Screw Propellor ; Thrust and Efflciency.—Various Fonns of Propeller.— Number and Positions.—Blades, Number, Shape, etc.—Details of Screws.—Pitch of the Screw.—Materials.—Trials and Expérimenta.—Index.
  - “ Contains ail that is useful to know about the screw propeller. . . . Thoroughly up-to-date.”—Steamship.
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  - Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Pp. i-xxiii + 639. With 243 Illustrations. Large 8vo, Handsome Cloth. 25s. net.
  - A TEXT-BOOK ON
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  - Ev BRYAN DONKIN, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.Mech.E.
  - Revised throughout by T. Graves Smith. With important New Matter
  - by Prof. Burstall.
  - Contents.—Part I. : Gas Engines.—General Description of the Action and Parts of a Gas Engine.—Heat “ Cycles ” and Classification of Gas Engines.—History of tlie Gas Engine.—The Atkinson, Griffin, and Stockport Engines.—The Otto Gas Engine.— Modem Britisli Gas Engines.—Modem Ereneli Gas Engines.—German Gas Engines.—Gas Production for Motive Power.—Utilisation of Blast-fumace and Coke-oven Gases for Power.—Theory of the Gas Engine.—Chemical Composition of Gas in a Cylinder.— Utilisation of Heat in a Gas Engine.—Explosion and Combustion Part II. : Petroleum Engines.—Discovery, Propertics, and Utilisation of Oil.—Oil Testing, Carburetters, Early Oil Engines.—Working Methods.—The Priestman Engine.—Otlier British Oil Engines.— American Gas and Oil Engines.—Erench and Swiss Oil Engines.—German Oil Engines.— Applications of Gas and Oil Engines. Part III. : Air Engines.—Appendices.—Index.
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  - AERO ENGINES.
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  - EVOLUTION OF THE
  - INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE.
  - B y EDWARD BUTLER, M.I.Mecii.E.
  - General Contents.—Introduetory.—Calorie Engines—Constant-pressure Engines.— Free-piston Engines.—Non-compression Engines.—Compression of Mixture.—Four-stroke Engines.—Removal of Inert Gases.—Two-stroke Engines.-—Compound Explosion Engines. —The Thermo-dynamics of Int. Comb. Engine.—Difficultics of the Turbine Principle.— Valves.—Mixing and Goveming and Carburetting.—Ignition.—Starting and Reversing.— Evolution of the Internai Combustion Engine.—Industrial Oil and Gas Engines.—Large-power Engines.—High-speed Engines.—Rotary and ltevolving Cylinder Engmes.—Single-sleeve or Liner Valves.—Cooling and Lubricating.—Index
  - " The Author’s expérience gives him excellent qualifications for the task he has under-taken . . ali who are interested in the practical working of combustion engines will flnd this volume interesting and worthy of a place on their bookshelf.”—Meohanical Engineer.
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  - By ANDREW JAMIESON, M.Inst.C.E., M Inst.E.E.
  - Seventeenth Edition, Revised. With over 800 Pagés, over 400 Illustrations, and 12 Plates. 10s. 6d.
  - A TEXT-BOOK ON
  - STEAM & STEAM ENGINES,
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  - Specially arranged for tho use of Engineers qualifying for the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Diplomas and Degrees of Technical Colleges and Universities, Advanced Science Certificates of British and Colonial Boards of Education, and Honours Certificates of the City and Guilds of London Institute, in Mechanical Engineering, and for Engineers generally.
  - General Contents.—Early Forma of Steam Engine.—Température, Thermometry, Pyrometry.—Quantity of Heat, Thermal Units, Tables, Calorimetera, Spécifie Heats of Gases and Steam.—Diffusion, ltadiation, etc., of Steam, Ebullition of Water.—Nature of Heat, Conversion of Work into Heat, First Law of Thermodynamics, The B.T.U.— Sensible and Latent Heats of Water and Steam, Température and Pressure of Steam.— Pressure and Vacuum Gauges.—Evaporation and Condensation.—Jet and Surface Condensera.—Work.—Génération of Steam in a Closed Vessel.—Boyie’s Law, Watt’s Diagram of Work.—Charles’s Law.—Absolute Zéro.—Adiabatic Expansion.—Heat Engines, Camot’s Principle.—Entropy and Thermodynamics.—Lap and Lead of a Valve, Admission, Cut-off, etc.—Zeuner’s Valve Diagrams.—Behaviour of Steam in a Cylinder.—Loss between Boiler and Cylinder.—Steam Jacketing.—Superheated Steam.—Cushioning.—Compound-ing.—Watt’s, Crosby, and other Indicators, Indicator Diagrams.—Nominal and Inaicated H.P., Brake H.P., Apparatus for finding H.P. — Cranks, Connecting-rods, and other Moving Parts, Effect of Inertia of ; Crank Effort Diagrams.—Stationary Engines.—Corllss Valve Gear.—Lubrication.—Willans’ Engine.—Marine Engines.—Paddle Wheels.— The Screw Propeller, Pitch, Angle, Slip, Thrust, etc., etc.—Triple-Expansion Engines. Quadruple-Expansion Engines.—Details or Enoine : Valves, Pistons, Crossheads, Bearings, etc., etc.—Pumps.—Condensera.—Steam Turbines : Définition, Types, Speed of Rotor, Steam Consumption, Stresses, Balancing, etc., etc.—Mathematical Explanation of Heat Units, Work done, etc., etc., as expressed for Idéal Steam Engines, with Spécial Référencé to Turbines.—Examples of Types of Turbines.—Boilers : Vertical, Horizontal; Comish ; Lancashire ; Water Tube ; Belleville ; Yarrow, etc., etc.—Forced Draught.— Mechanical Stokers.—Materials in Boiler Construction.—Joints, StayB, etc.—The Locomotive Engine, Injectora, Compounding, Efficienoy, etc.—Appendices.—Index.
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  - _ Revised.by EWART S. ANDREWS, B.Sc.,
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  - Abridged Contents.—Elementary Mensuration.—Weights and Measures.—Ther-mometry.—Heat.—Evaporation.—Ebullition.—Work.—Pressure and Température of Steam.—Properties of Gases.—Tlie Parts of a Steam Engine.—Valves and tlieir Setting. —Indicators.—Single and Compound Engines.—Details of Engines.—Valves and Eittings. —Condensera.—Crank Shaft, Bearings, etc., etc.—Boilers and Boiler Mountings.—Locomotives.—Turbines.—Gas Engines.—Oil Engines.—APPENDICES.—INDEX.
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  - GOLD & SILVER ORES.
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  - Contents.—Introduction.—Design and Equipment of Assay Offices.—Furnaces and Appliauces.—Precious Métal Ores.—Valuation of Ores.—Sampling of Ores.—Préparation of Samples for Assay.—Fluxes and Principles of Fluxing.—Assay Operations—(a) Roast-ing ; (6) Fusion ; (c) Scorification ; (d) Cupellation.—Systems of Working.—Assay of Gold and Silver Ores.—Of Complex Ores.—Calculating and Reporting Results.—Spécial Methods of Ore Assay.—Bullion.—Valuation of Bullion.—Sampling of Bullion.—Assay of Gold, Silver, and Base Bullion.—Of Auriferous and Argentiferous Products.—Assay Work in Cyanide Mill—Platinum and the “Platinum Metals.”—Assay of Platinum in Ores, Bullion and Products.—Appendices.—Index.
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  - Contents.—Section I.: Historical Account of the Petroleum Industry.—Section II.: Geological and Geographical Distribution of Petroleum and Natural Gas.—Section III.: The Chemical and Physical Properties of Petroleum and Natural Gas.—Section IV. : The Origin of Petroleum and Natural Gas.—Section V.: The Production of Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Ozokerite.—Section VI.: The Reflning of Petroleum.—Section VII.: The Shaie Oil and Allied Industries.—Section VIII. : The Transport, Storage, and Distribution of Petroleum.—Section IX. : The l'esting of Crude Petroleum, Petroleum and Shale Oil Products, Ozokerite, and Asphait.—Section X. : The Uses of Petroleum and its Products.—Section XI. : Statutory, Municipal, and other Régulations relating to the Testing, Storage, Transport, and Use of Petroleum and its Products.—Biblio-graph y.—Appendices.—Index.
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  - Contents.—Sources and Nature of Coal.—Exploration and Boring for Coal.—Breaking Ground.—Explosives, Blasting, &c.—Sinking and Fitting of Shafts.—Modes of Working.—Timbering Roadways.—Winding and Drawing.—Haulage.—Pumping and Drainage.—Ventilation.—Cleaning and Sorting Coal.—Surveying, &c.
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  - Fourteenth Edition, Revised. Greatly Enlarged. Pp. i-xviii + 477. Re-set. With Numerous Diagrams. Cloth. 7s. 6d. net.
  - A TREATISE ON MINE-SURVEYING:
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  - Contents.—General Explanations.—Measurement of Distances.—Chain Surveying.— Traverse Surveying.—Variations o fthe Magnetic-Needle.—Loose-Needle Traversing.— Local Variations of the Magnetic-Needle.—The German Dial.—The Vernier Dial.—The Théodolite.—Fixed-Needle Traversing.—Surface-Surveying with the Théodolite.—Plot-ting the Survey.—Plane-Table Surveying.—Calculation of Areas.—Levelling.—Underground and Surface Surveys.—Measuring Distances by Telescope.—Setting-out.—Mine-Surveying Problems.—Mine Plans.—Applications of the Magnetic-Needle in Mining.— Photographie Surveying.—Appendices.—Index.
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  - A HANDBOOK ON
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  - Second Edition, Revised Throughout. In Medium 8vo. With Numerous Plates, Maps, and Illustrations. Pp. i-xxiv + 460. 21s. net.
  - CYANIDiNC GOLD & SILVER ORES.
  - A Practical Treatise on the Cyanide Process ; its Application, Methods of Working, Design and Construction of Plant, and Costs.
  - By H. FOEBES JULIAN,
  - And EDGAR SMART, A.M.I.O.E.,
  - Civil ami Metallurgical Engineer.
  - Contents.—Early History of the Cyanide Process.—Preliminary Investigations.— Crushing.—Weighing and Measuring.—Percolation and Leaching.—Principles involved in Dissolution and Précipitation of Metals.—Dissolution of the Gold and Silver.—Température Effects.—Absorption of Air by Solutions.—Action of Various Cyanide Solutions. —Sources of Loss of Cyanide.—Précipitation.—Précipitation by Zinc.—Electrical Précipitation.—Other Methods of Précipitation.—Cleaning-up, Eeflning, and Smelting.— Applications of the Cyanide Process.—Double Treatment.—Direct Treatment of Dry Crushed Ore.—Crushing with Cyanide Solution.—Sûmes.—Dissolving the Gold and Silver in Sûmes.—Extraction by Successive Washings.—Agitation and Natural Settlement.— Eilter Presses.—Yats.—Essential Parts of a Cyanide Plant (Construction).—Piping, Cocks, Launders, and Buildings.—Handling Material.—Eopes and Gears for Haulage. —Belt Conveyors.—Pumps.—Spitzlutte and Spitzkasten.—Cost of Plant.—Cost of Treatment.—Complote Plants.—Roasting.—Index.
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  - MEMORIÂLS OF HENRY FORBES JULIAN
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  - Fifth English Edition. In Large Crown 8vo. With 22 Plates and many Illustrations in the Text. Handsome Cloth. Pp. i-xiv + 347. 8s. 6d. net.
  - THE CYANIDE PROCESS OF GOLD EXTRACTION.
  - A Text-Booh for the Use of Métallurgiste and Students at Schools of Mines, &c.
  - By JAMES PARK, F.G.S., M.Inst.M.M.,
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  - Thorouglily Revised and Greatly Enlarged. With additional details concerning the Siemens-Halske and other recent processes.
  - Contents.—The McArthur-Forrest Process.—Cliemistry of the Process.—Laboratory Expérimenta.—Control, Testing, and Analysis of Solutions.—Appliances and Plant for Cyanide Extraction.—Actual Extraction by Cyanide.—Production and Treatment of Sûmes.—Cyanide Treatment of Concentrâtes.—Leaching by Agitation.—Zinc Précipitation and Treatment of Gold Sûmes.—Application of the Process in Different Countries.— The Siemens-Halske Process.—Other Cyanide Processes.—Antidotes for Cyanide Poison-ing.—Index.
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  - General Contents.—Early History of Iron.—Modem History of Iron.—The Age of Steel. —Ohief Iron Ores.—Préparation of Iron Ores.—The Blast Furnace,—The Air used in the Blast Furnace. — Reaotions of the Blast Furnace.—The Gtaseous Products of the Blast Furnace—The Fuel used in the Blast Furnace.—Siags and FuieB of Iron Smelting.— Properties of OaBt Iron. — Foundry Practice. — Wrought Iron. — Indirect Production of Wrought Iron.—The Puddling ProcesB.—Further Treatment of Wrought Iron,—Corrosion of Iron and Steel_Recent Progress.—Index.
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  - The Sampling & Assay of the Precious Metals :
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  - By ERNEST A. SMITH, A.R.S.M., M.Inst.M.M.,
  - Deputy Assay Master of the Slieflield Assay Office ; Late of the Royal School of Mines
  - Contents.—Introduction.—Design and Equipment of Assay Offices.— Furnaces and Appliances.—Precious Métal Ores.—Valuation of Ores.—Sampling of Ores.—Préparation of Samples for Assay.—Fiuxes and Principles of Fluxing.—Assay Operations—(a) Roast-ing ; (b) Fusion ; (c) Scorification ; (ri) Cupellation.—Systems of Working.—Assay of Gold and Silver Ores.—Of Complex Ores.—Calculating and Reporting Results.—Spécial Methods of Ore Assay.—Bullion.—Valuation of Bullion.— Sampling of Bullion.—Assay of Gold, Silver, and Base Bullion.—Of Auriferous and Argentiferous Products.—Assay Work in Cyanide Mill—Platinum and the “Platinum Metals.”—Assay of Platinum in Ores, Bullion and Products.—Appendices.— Index.
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  - LECTURES ON
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  - By DONALD M. LEVY, M.Sc.. A.B.S.M.,
  - Assistant Lecturer in Metallurgy, University of Birmingham.
  - Abridged Contents.—Historical,—Price and Cost of Production and Statistics.— Uses of Copper as Métal and Alloy.—Effect of Impurities.—Compounds.—Ores.—Pre-liminary Treatment.—Sampling.—Concentration.—Principlcs of Copper Smelting.— Bintering.—Itevcrbeiatory Smelting Practice.—Blast Eumace Practice.—Bessemerising of Copper Mattes.—Purification and Iteflning of Crude Copper.—Casting.—Index.
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  - CAST IRON
  - IN THE LIGHT OF RECENT RESEARCH.
  - By W. H. HATFIELD, D.Sc., A.M.I.Mecli.E.
  - Contents.—Introduction.—The Non-Carbon Alloys and Cast Iron from the Stand-point of the Equilibrium Diagram.—Influence of Silicon.—Of Phosphorus.—Of Sulpliur. —Of Manganèse.—Of Other Eléments.—Of Casting Température.—Shrinkage and Contraction.—Growth of Cast Iron under Itepeated Heatings.—Eiïect of Superheated Steam upon Cast-iron Eittings.—Malléable Cast Iron.—Heat Treatment of Cast Iron.—Décarburisation of Cast Iron witliout furtlier Eusion.—Mechanical Properties of Cast and Malléable Cast Iron.—Eumaces and Slags.—Appendices.—Index.
  - “A valuable addition to Griffln’s noted metallurgical publications.”—Mining Magazine. ____________________
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  - A HANDBOOK ON
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  - Theip Structure and Constitution.
  - B y GILBERT H. GULLIVER, B.Sc., F.R.S.E.
  - ntents.—Methods of Investigation.—The Physico-Chemical Equilibrium of Mixed Substances.—Binary Alloys in which no Deflnite Chemical Compounds are formed. —Do. which show Evidence of the Eormation of Deflnite Chemical Compounds.—Transformations in Completely Solid Metals.—Alloys.—Equilibrium Conditions in Metallic Mixtures.—The Structures of Metals and Alloys.—The Bronzes, Brasses, and other Alloys of Copper.—Steel and other Alloys of Iron.—Alloys of more than Two Metals.— The Microscope in Engineering Practice.—Index.
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  - THE MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS OF METALS.
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  - Revised and Corkected by L. P. SYDNEY.
  - Contents.—Part I. Metallography considered as a Method of Assay.—Part II. he Science of Polishing.—Part III. The Microscopie Analysis of Carbon Steels.— Appendices.—Index.
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  - Contents.—Section I. : Historical Account of the Petroleum Industry.—Section II. : Geological and Geographical Distribution of Petroleum and Natural Gas.—Section III.: The Chemical and Physical Properties of Petroleum and Natural Gas.—Section IV.: The Origin of Petroleum and Natural Gas.—Section V.: The Production of Petroleum, Natural Gas, and Ozokerite.—Section VI.: The Reflning of Petroleum.—Section VII.: The Shale Oil and Allied Industries.—Section VIII. : The Transport, Storage, and Distribution of Petroleum.—Section IX. : The Cesting of Crude Petroleum, Petroleum and Shale Oil Products, Ozokerite, and Asphalt.—Section X. : The Uses of Petroleum and its Products.—Section XI. : Statutory, Municipal, and other Régulations relating to the Testing, Storage, Transport, and Use of Petroleum and its Products.—Bibdio-«raphy.—Appendices.—Index.
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